1. Introduction

It is on record that river Nile is one of the world’s longest transboundary rivers flowing a distance of more than 6,700 kilometres from its farthest source at the headwaters of the Kagera Basin in Rwanda and Burundi to the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt. Its catchments basin covers approximately 10% of the African continent and river is shared by ten riparian countries which include Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.

The Basin contains an extraordinarily rich and varied range of ecosystems, with mountains, tropical forests, woodlands, savannas, high and low altitude wetlands, arid lands and deserts (World Bank, 2008). Since the Nile waters do not stop at administrative or political boundaries, the river basin has been of great importance as regards human settlement, development of a rich diversity of cultures, civilisation and development for centuries. As of today, the Nile is a crucial resource for the economic development of the Nile basin States and a vital source of livelihood for 160 million inhabitants as well as 300 million people living in the ten riparian countries (Ibid). It’s estimated that in the next 25 years, the population in the Nile basin will be 600 million.

Nevertheless, for decades, the Nile basin people have been facing many complex environmental, social, economic and political challenges that have made it difficult of the proper management and sustainability of Nile water. Such problems include among others, disputes and conflicts over the control and use of the Nile waters; extreme poverty, food insecurity; droughts; floods; environmental degradation exacerbated by high population growth; inadequate sanitary services; unreliable electricity, water scarcity; lack of cooperation on the shared resources of the Nile basin (World Bank, 2008: 1-2, World Bank, 2003a: 5).  The transboundary nature of the river also possesses extra challenge.

Consequently, the Nile basin States jointly recognised that the best way to utilize, protect and manage the Nile basin in an integrated sustainable way was through a close international co-operation between and among all the countries within the natural, geographical and hydrological unit of the river whereby all interests of upstream and downstream countries are considered. However, this cooperative management of the Nile River Basin is one of the greatest challenges of the global international water agenda (World Bank, 2003a, 2004a).  Nevertheless, it is an important catalyst for greater regional integration, economic, political, knowledge integrations with benefits far exceeding those derived from the river itself.

2. Strategy for management of the Nile River with reference to the Nile Basin Initiative

The recognition of the cooperative management of the Nile by the Nile Basin States has given birth to the Nile Basin Initiative which reflects various aspects of integrated water resource management. The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) is one of the recent international historic cooperative river basin management program and regional partnership where all the Nile basin states except Eritrea unite to pursue long-term sustainable development, improved land use practices and management of the Nile water resource for the benefit of all without discrimination (World Bank, 2008:2).

The history of the Nile Basin Initiative dates back in 1992 when the Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of the Nile Basin states recognized the need for regional cooperation and integration for regional growth, environmental conservation and the equitable sustainable development of the entire Nile Basin (Guvele, 2003). In that political atmosphere, the Technical Cooperation Committee for the Promotion of Development and Environmental Protection of the Nile Basin (TECCONILE) was formed which later created the Nile river Basin Action Plan in 1995 (NRBAP)(Ibid). In this Action Plan, the need to establish a Nile River Basin Cooperative Framework was at its centre stage and fortunately, this partially materialised in 1999 when the “transitional” Nile basin Initiative (NBI) was launched (Ibid).

2.1 State of Planning and implementation

Recognizing their common concerns and interests, the NBI embarked with a participatory process of dialogue among the Nile basin states that fashioned a shared vision “to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development through the equitable utilization of, and benefit from, the common Nile Basin water resources” (World Bank, 2008: 2). The policy guideline which accompanies the agreed joint shared vision provides a basin- wide cooperative water resource management framework and also defines the primary objectives of NBI. These objectives include;

1) To develop the water resources of the Nile Basin in a sustainable and equitable way

2) To ensure prosperity, security, and peace for all its peoples;

3) To ensure efficient water management and the optimal use of the resources;

4) To ensure cooperation and joint action between the riparian countries, seeking win-win gains;

5) To target poverty eradication and promote economic integration; and

6) To ensure that the program results in a move from planning to action.

In order to implement and achieve the NBI objectives as well as translating the agreed shared vision into action and fostering co-operative development on the Nile, the riparian governments developed a Strategic Action Program composed of two complementary sub-programs which include Shared Vision Program (SVP) and Subsidiary Action Programs (SAPs) (World Bank, 2008:2-3; 2003a:5-8 ). As of today, the Nile Basin Initiative with its strategic Action Program represents a deep commitment by the Nile riparian countries to foster cooperation, regional integration and sustainable development of the Nile River.  It is composed of the Council of Ministers of Water of the member states (Nile-COM), and a Technical Advisory Committee (Nile-TAC), comprising technical representatives from the member states.

However, the Nile Basin Initiatives’ Strategic Action Program is a greatest fundamental turning point and landmark towards integrated water resource management of the Nile River. In it whole, the Strategic Action Program is trying to create a knowledge base and essential tools for integrated water resource management through regional, economic, spatial sectoral and knowledge integration.

3. Analysis of the Nile Basin initiative’s Strategic Action Program

As already mentioned, the Strategic Action Program is composed of two components which include the Subsidiary Action Programs (SAP) having two branches one called the Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program, (ENSAP) and the others called the Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program, (NELSAP). The second component of  Strategic Action Program is the Shared Vision Programs (SVP) and is funded by the World Bank(WB), African Development Bank(ADB), Global Environmental Facility(GEF) and Nile Basin Trust Fund (NBTF), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)(World Bank, 2003a; 2004a; 2008).

The analysis begins with Shared Vision Programs which form the core of the NBI. It include seven thematic projects as discussed analysed below.

1) The Nile Transboundary Environmental Action Project

This project came into existence after the Nile basin Countries carried out a participatory Nile Basin Transboundary Environmental Analysis that identified various environmental concerns related to water resources (World Bank, 2003b). The environmental concerns identified included, deforestation that has led to losses of biologically important habitats, high rates of soil erosion leading to sedimentation of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs; localized water pollution arising from agriculture, industry, mining and domestic effluent; proliferation of aquatic weeds, particularly water hyacinth and wetland land reclamation (Ibid:15). However, some of these problems like deforestation and erosion are just symptoms of big underlying root causes like poor government developmental policies, which the program never identified.

Poverty and population growth were also singled out to cause additional pressures on natural resources and this has been compounded by a lack of awareness of land-water interactions and the functioning of critical ecosystems. However, this project does not capture how the consumption patterns of the high population are leading to environmental problems and how poverty actually causes pressures on natural resources quantitatively. It should be noted that poverty per se, has nothing to do with environmental problems but it is the underlying mechanisms that cause poverty which possess a big threat to the environment.  The project also ignores the issues of climate change which is arousing serious threats to African Continent.

Nevertheless, the Transboundary Environmental Action Project with its management unit located in Khartoum, Sudan was implemented in 2004.  As of today, various stakeholders are involved in the project and are greatly supported by the project. The project provides training to develop skills in government ministries, NGOs and local communities in each country in such areas as environmental management and monitoring, water quality monitoring, and conservation of wetlands (World Bank, 2003b, 2008). It is also working to raise awareness of critical environmental issues by strengthening networks of environmental education practitioners; developing curriculum for primary, secondary and university students; and supporting environmental awareness campaigns through nature clubs, schools, youth groups, scout troops, universities, churches and mosques (Ibid).

The project also promotes information sharing about issues affecting the environment among all stakeholders in the Nile countries, including developing a decision-support system that is based on reliable and consistent environmental data from each country to enable better region-wide environmental planning and management (World Bank, 2003b, 2008). The project also funds local NGOs and communities to promote community-based approaches to land and water conservation to reduce soil erosion, desertification, and pollution and to control invasive waterweeds.

The activities of this project on one hand reflect an effort of spatial, landscape and territorial integration all of which geared to protect and manage the environment as well as the delicate ecosystem of the Nile River basin.  On the other hand, through these activities, the Nile basin governments, NGOs, researchers, educators, and private sector representatives can acquire integrated knowledge that could help them to work together both within their own countries and across borders. This is fundamental in building mutual understanding, solid relationships, and collaborative partnerships that are essential building blocks for regional cooperation, sustainable development, environmental conservation and broader regional integration.

2) Water Resources Planning and Management Project

This project is working to address problems of water management fragmentation within each Nile basin state, weak human and institutional capacity to manage the Nile waters in an integrated manner, uneven distribution of water professionals within the basin as well as the inadequate interaction among water professionals in the Nile basin countries (World Bank, 2004b:2). The stakeholders involved in this project include government agencies in water-related sectors, civil society, NGOs, university networks, professionals in the field, and the private sector. In order to address these problems, the project is supporting basin-wide dialogue on good practice in water policy formulation and implementation.

To achieve sectoral integration as regards resource management in the Nile Basin States, the project is building skills in each country for effective formulation and implementation of successive national policies and strategies for integrated water resources management (IWRM) as well as planning and management of multi-country projects. The project has also come up with Nile Basin Decision Support System (DSS) where NBI countries will be able to share data on river hydrology to better understand river system behaviour, evaluate alternative development and management schemes (World Bank, 2004b:5-6). This will facilitate knowledge integration which is important for making more informed decisions for sustainable water resource planning and management in the basin. However, this project is aiming at building a common technical foundation rather than a common local socio-cultural and environmental knowledge base or both for facilitating integrated water resource planning and management from basin wide perspective. In that regard, the project’s focus represents a biased and typical top-down approach for integrated water resource management which don’t create a levelled ground for integrated and sustainable management of the river.

3) The Socio-economic Development and Benefit Sharing Project

To address the complexity and variability of the river basin’s hydrology as well as the differences of Nile Basin countries’ economies, the social economic Development and Benefit Sharing project (SDBS) is aiming at an integrated approach to water resources management, environmental conservation and regional development (World Bank, 2004a:2). This is a fundamental building block for integrated natural recourse management since the project focuses on knowledge integration as well as economic integration for sustainable management of the basin. In that regard, the project is currently building a multidisciplinary network of professionals (stakeholders) from economic planning, research institutions, technical experts from public and private sectors, academics, and representatives from civic groups and NGOs from across the basin (Ibid). The multidisciplinary network creation is vital tool of solving complex environmental problems since it provides broader platform to exchange views and solutions than a disciplinary network which provides no platform for exchange of knowledge thus leading to narrow views and solutions or no solutions at all.

Under this project, the multidisciplinary network of professional are required to carry out joint research, explore alternative Nile development scenarios, identify benefit-sharing schemes, foster information sharing and exchange, as well as enhancing public awareness of the importance of water as a shared and precious resource. However, the project is only building capacity to explore alternative new development scenarios without much consideration on how the old development projects in the Nile basin countries could be made more environmentally friendly. Again, as with other projects, the issue of local participation is still scanty in this project and the criteria for selecting professionals to form a multidisciplinary network as well as sharing benefits is not well defined.

4) The Confidence-Building and Stakeholder Involvement project (CBSI).

This project was created to address issues of disputes, conflicts, political tension and lack of cooperation in the management of the Nile basin resources (World Bank, 2003c). The CBSI project aims at building confidence, trust, collaborative relationships among everyone who has a stake in how water resources in their country are developed, allocated, and managed (Ibid). This is an important mechanism for constructive dialogue, planning and development and this can provide a benchmark for hierarchical integration from local, national, regional and international levels which is vital for the sustainable management of the Nile waters. The project is promoting broad-based stakeholder participation including dialogue, collective analysis, action, and monitoring for feedback and learning (Ibid).

However, the extent to which stakeholders should be involved in the project, their roles and interests is not well defined. The project also has a public information component. This is geared towards increasing public awareness by providing accurate, timely, and understandable information about the NBI and its programs to people across the basin in languages and formats they understand through a variety of culturally appropriate channels (World Bank, 2003c). Such information dissemination creates a clear picture of the benefits of regional cooperation and integration among the inhabitants of the Nile Basin. As regard building build confidence, trust and collaboration among countries, the project has various programs that encourage exchanges among parliamentarians, journalists, university professors, local leaders, including women leaders, schoolchildren, and university students. The project also has activities that focus on forums and networks geared to discuss issues of poverty reduction and development among others (Ibid) This is an important component of knowledge integration where various people are facilitated to share their views, experiences with others and this creates a sense of ownership of the projects being run by the NBI

5. The Nile Basin Regional Power Trade Project

This project is the first basin-wide effort to develop a regional power trading architecture for the Nile through the active participation of all basin countries. The project is responding to unreliable electricity in basin which has hindered economic growth and caused paramount environmental degradation. The project has come up with Nile Basin Power Forum where national power experts can exchange ideas on how to develop power supply facilities and ways of how to expand power trade in the Nile basin (World Bank, 2005a). This reflects an emerging Technical integration in the Nile basin.

The creation of a regional electricity market is intended to play a key role in furthering cooperation among the basin states, providing sustainable environmentally friendly energy and in ensuring that the hydropower resources of the Nile Basin are developed and managed in an integrated and sustainable manner (World Bank, 2005a).  In a long run, this project will create far reaching benefits as regards water conservation, land protection, and reduced emission of greenhouse gases. However, this project does not put into consideration other cheap power sources like, solar energy, wind energy, biogas and methane from wetlands which could be used by the people who can not afford electricity. If such energy potentials were recognised, it would have created an important aspect of integrated energy production.

6) The Applied Training Project (ATP)

This project is working to build capacity needed to promote integrated water resource management in the Nile basin (World Bank, 2003d). This is done under various components. The first component deals with training decision makers and professionals in water resources management in the basin countries in aspects of water management policy at national level (Ibid). The second component deals with offering post-graduate scholarships to applicants from the Nile basin countries so as to under take both master and doctorial training in water resource management. This is geared to build within each country a cadre of water resources management specialists able to reduce barriers for sectoral integration in natural resource management. As part of the effort to promote interaction and knowledge integration among water professionals in the NBI countries, the third component of the project deals with establishing the Nile Net, which is a network of training institutions that can engage in collaborative research, joint problem-solving and staff exchanges (Ibid).  This project will lead in the long-run the introduction of common basin-wide guidelines and standards for Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) principles. However, the desire for integrated water resource management in the Nile Basin is too skewed to scientific approach where people are trained in various scientific methods only without having a dose of what local water resource management practices and systems can offer.

7) The Efficient Use of Water for Agriculture Project

Due to the great importance of agriculture in the Nile basin, this project is aiming at providing a sound conceptual and practical basis to increase the availability and efficient use of water for agricultural production. The project is creating  a framework that will enable stakeholders from the Nile Countries to work together to promote basin-wide cooperation and awareness, enhance understanding and build capacity on the common irrigation and water harvesting issues (World Bank, 2005b). This is hoped to be achieved through basin-wide consultations, workshops, and seminars that will create networks of key actors who will collectively work together on water harvesting, community managed irrigation, and public and private-managed irrigation (Ibid). This reflects an aspect of knowledge integration where every stakeholder views are recognised as important for efficient use of water for agriculture.

In parallel with the Shared Vision programs, two Subsidiary Action Program (NELSAP and ENSAP) have been set up. As with the Shared Vision Programs, institutional strengthening and capacity building which is an important aspect of hierarchical, sectoral and knowledge integration has also been provided to the two implementing institutions, ENTRO and NELSAP-CU. Under the SAPs, great achievement have been realised. For example in the Eastern Nile,  sub-regional Flood Preparedness and Early Warning Project, irrigation developments in Ethiopia and Egypt, and a Power Interconnection Project between Ethiopia and its neighbouring countries have been realised (World Bank, 2008). In the Equatorial Lakes region, Rusumo Falls Hydroelectric and Multipurpose Project has been constructed as well as the establishment of the Agriculture and Trade Project (Ibid). These SAPs provide a strong foundation for the Nile Basin countries to engage in concrete activities for long-term sustainable development, integrated water resource management, natural resource conservation, economic growth and regional integration.

3.1 Challenges facing the NBI

a) World Bank Participation

Despite a remarkable progress attained by NBI, it is feared that the initiative has little hope of achieving its goals in large part because of the World Bank’s- involvement and funding.  It is on record that the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) have played the single role in the impoverishment of the African continent (Foulds, 2002). It has been noted that because of World Bank’s policies, half of its projects have been unsuccessful and the failure rate is even higher in the poorest countries (Ibid). Therefore, considering the fact that six of the world’s ten poorest countries are within the Nile Basin, the World Bank-Nile Basin Initiative “inter-marriage” presents a doubtful scenarios of achieving the initiative’s objectives.

b) Nile Basin Water Treaty of 1929

Though the NBI tries to bring together all the Nile basin states to cooperate in the sustainable management of the Nile River, the 1929 Nile Basin Treaty still holds a lot of water. It is not yet known whether the NBI is done in good faith or as pretence to appease the international community especially the donors. It should be noted that the 79-year-old water sharing treaty has kept Nile Basin countries into vigorous conflict over the region’s most precious resource (Tvedt, 2004). It regulates Nile water usage among the 10 countries that share the Nile River’s watershed but giving much power to the Egyptians. In this sensitive political climate, any country in the Nile basin which wishes to utilizes the Nile water, has to seek permission from the Egypt.  For example, the treaty requires Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda which are at the source of the Nile to seek permission from Cairo, 6 000 kilometres away, before drawing water from Lake Victoria to cultivate their parched fields, yet the NBI advocates for all Nile Basin States to be equal partners. This means that the NBI is in serious “hidden” contradiction with the 1929 Nile Basin Treaty and if this issue is not handled diplomatically, Nile water wars are abound to occur in the future.

c) Lack of sufficient staff for carrying out important activities

The NBI’s ambitious goal of establishing regional cooperation and mutually beneficial relationships among all Nile Basin countries is limited by the small number of staff. The current staff at the NBI cannot respond to the increasing and emerging demands placed on the institution such as strategic planning, resource mobilization or responding to Basin Management issues like Climate changes (World Bank, 2008). In additional to that, the NBI lacks the capacity to handle regional database as well as analysing water resource information (Ibid). Nevertheless, its assumed that under the Institutional Strengthening Project (NBI-ISP), NBI will be equipped with a more robust institutional infrastructure and critical skills needed to deliver its current work program more effectively(Ibid).

d) Procedural and Policies conflicts

The Subsidiary Action Program aim of creating the Eastern Nile Technical Regional Office (ENTRO) in Ethiopia and Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program Coordination unit (NELSAP-CU) in Rwanda has led to the emergence of  procedural and policy conflict between the programs and other NBI Institutions (World Bank, 2008). This is because these programs have evolved independent of each other resulting into differing set of policies and procedure and this has been due to the political differences between Rwanda and Ethiopia. This situation is thought to threaten future operation Integrity of the NBI. However, it is thought that the Institutional Strengthening Project will enhance basin-wide institutional integration through a harmonization of NBI policies and procedures across the basin (Ibid). In additional, the Institutional Strengthening Project is mandated to strengthen and harmonize administrative systems and functions across all NBI institutions.

e) Lack of coordination and Linkage with other regional Institutions

With the establishment of the NBI, other regional institutions have evolved like Lake Victoria Basin Commissions (LVBC) but NBI’s coordination with such institutions is not clearly established. However, it is hoped that Institutional Strengthening Project will strengthen the Nile National Focal Point Offices and NBI regional linkages with other institutions and stakeholders.

f) NBI is not recognised river basin Organisation

As early on noted, the NBI is just a “transitional institution” binding together the Nile basin Countries to move forward into a Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) which would create a permanent river basin organization (RBO). However, negotiations on the proposed CFA are well advanced but not yet concluded (World Bank, 2008).

4. SWOT analysis of the Nile Basin Initiative

This section adapt a SWOT analysis technique to summarise the nitty gritty of the Nile Basin Initiative. The criterion for evaluation is based on the framework concept of integrated water resource management. The perspective we have adopted is that of sustainable development of the water of the Nile for the benefit of all.

Strengths:

NBI focuses on multi-country, multi-sectoral program of collaborative action, exchange of experience, and trust and capacity building designed to build a strong foundation for regional cooperation and sustainable management of the Nile water. NBI is intrinsically geared towards achieving the Millenium Development Goals and Sustainable Development. NBI is developing knowledge based and essential tools for integrated water resource management through capacity building in each Nile Basin Countries It has led to the development of the Decision-Support System for information sharing NBI aims at building confidence, trust, collaborative relationships among everyone who has a stake in how water resources in their country are developed, allocated, and managed and stakeholder involvement The project is promoting broad-based stakeholder participation including dialogue, collective analysis, action, and monitoring for feedback and learning. NBI has managed to create a strong stakeholder commitment and ownership of its projects among all member countries by creating project management location units in each country NBI has Strategy for Addressing Environmental and Social Safeguards through an Environmental Management Plan. NBI has strong donor support from giant institutions like the World Bank, GEF, GTZ, ADB and CIDA for implementing its projects.

10.  It has framework for following up its projects through consolidated annual and quarterly interim financial reports.

11.  NBI promotes regional cooperation important for  increasing a range of direct benefits to riparian states which include electricity production, environmental conservation and

Water shed protection.

The NBI has set up governance, institutional structures and processes to provide permanent mechanisms for constructive dialogue, planning and development among   riparians, focused on the sharing of water and water’s benefits

Weakness:

1)       Lack of institutional depth like thin staffing which is insufficient to respond the increasing and emerging demands placed on the institution in the area of strategic planning, resource mobilization, or responding to basin management issues.

2)      Inadequate capacity to develop regional databases and to analyze water resource information

3)      There is a lack of coordination and linkages with some NBI stakeholders like the Lake Victoria Basin Commission – LVBC.

4)      The planning of NBI projects didn’t incorporate the local knowledge of the indigenous people in the Nile basin states.

5)      Despite the fact that the NBI is trying to develop and generate hydroelectric power along the Nile for the benefit of all people, the initiative is not part and partial of the World Commission on Dams (WCD) which provides comprehensive guidelines for constructing dams on international transboundary rivers.

6)      Theoretically NBI is bottom up but practically, is strongly top-down.

7)       NBI is the most complex and ambitious river basin project ever and this may result into misinterpretations and wrong analysis of the whole project.

Opportunities:

1). Continued support of the World Bank to the NBI projects present “hope” for the

achieving the NBI goals in future. Further more, financial and in kind contribution of member will help sustain NBI functions.

Establishment of Institutional Strengthening Project (NBI-ISP) is hoped to provide solutions to the challenges facing the NBI. For example, it will allow the NBI to undertake an institutional design processes to prepare the Nile Basin Institution for new challenges in absence or presence of CFA. Finalizing a Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) will help create a permanent river basin organization (RBO). More involvement of NGOs and civil society will involve the overall effectiveness and efficiency of the implementation of the NBI projects Since the Nile basin countries are part of the African Union, NBI project has an opportunity of benefiting from the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) which aims at providing an overarching vision and policy framework for accelerating economic co-operation and integration among African countries.

Threats:

1. Long-term challenge for operational integration across the basin because of  different sets of policies and procedures among NBI institutions like ENTRO and NELSAP-CU.

2. Nile Basin Water Treaty of 1929, which limits effective utilization the Nile

-waters

3    History of tensions and instability in the region, both between states   and  internal

states. Thus, when one country refuses to cooperate, it can have significant consequences on the NBI goals.

Increasing population coupled with poverty creates pressure on resources of the Nile NBI countries are in different development stages with 6 out of the poorest 10 nations of the world and this threatens the initiative’s path towards achieving its goals. The World Bank Polices possesses future uncertainty of the NBI projects due to its historical bad record in achieving its goals in the countries its funds.

10.  Corruption and aid money disappearing into private pockets can ruin all planning

11.   Climate change and water stress can force governments to act individually trying to exploit as much as possible for their people.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

In this paper, we conclude that the Nile basin Initiative represents the most comprehensive and complex management plan ever attempted for sustainable development of international transboundary rivers. The NBI tries to deal with all potential problems occurring at people-environment and development interface in the Nile basin through a multi-disciplinary, socio-cultural, economic, political and geographical environment which is an important attribute of achieving sustainable development as well as the Millennium Development Goals.  On the same note, we also conclude that the various projects which are being implemented by the NBI, reflect a “joint commitment and obligation” of the Nile basin states to put into action the recommendations of Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.

We also conclude that NBI is a paramount historical regional partnership in this new millennium as regards transboundary river basin management. This joint venture among the Nile basin states has created a “regional environmental-development interface think-tank” which is a vital mechanism for paving way to greater integrated water resource management that could result into mutual benefit of all without discrimination or favourism.  This has been done through spatial, regional, economy, and knowledge integration.

Nevertheless, the NBI is not immune from the challenges, weakness and threats as it can be cleared noticed in the SWOT analysis. At this juncture, we recommend in general terms that the NBI should capitalize on its strengths and opportunities to work out the challenges it faces. However, more specifically, we suggest the following recommendations:

The NBI should actively collaborate with the African Union in general and New Partnerships for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) so as to get some support and vibrant recognition. It should be noted that the goals of NEPAD conquer well with those of the NBI. For example, NEPAD’s goals which are threefold include promoting accelerated growth and sustainable development, eradicating widespread and severe poverty, and halting the marginalisation of Africa in the globalisation process. These goals translate very well with the shared Vision of the NBI, so, the collaboration between the two initiatives could have a vibrant platform for promoting sustainable development in Africa in general, Nile basin states in particular

Having realized the deficiency of local traditional knowledge in the overall planning of the NBI, we recommend that the initiative should consider incorporating issues of indigenous knowledge which represent the long-standing traditions and practices  of the Nile. It should be noted that the Nile basin has got a complex cultural diversity which could be useful for integrated water resource management in combination with the scientific approach being agitated by the NBI.

To achieve mutual benefit of the Nile water resources, we recommend that the NBI in conjunction with the international community should focus on serious amendment of the 1929 colonial Nile water treaty which possess significant challenge for realization of the initiative’s goals.

Since one of the projects of NBI is to building power plants, it can be feared that this project could have devastating impacts on the environment and the nearby societies. So, we recommend that the NBI should be harmonized within the World Commission on Dams so that it can adopt proper guidelines for the construction of dams along the Nile.  This will be vital in protecting dam-affected people and the environment, and to ensure that the benefits from dams are more equitably distributed.

Due to the fact that population pressure is one of the driving forces leading to environmental degradation in the Nile basin, we recommend that NBI should have a separate project focus on population control within the basin states.

To increase a sense of belonging, level of participation and ownership of the NBI projects, we recommend that “handouts” in terms of donations from the core funding institutions should be limited. Therefore, the Nile basin countries should try to build the capacity for soliciting their own funds for the NBI. This money could be got inter alia by reducing public expenditure, curbing corruptions.

Given the complex of the project, we recommend that the NBI should come up with a strong multi-disciplinary monitoring and evaluation team to following up all implemented projects. This team should be well equipped with modern techniques ranging from Geographical Information Systems (GIS) among others. We also recommend that the NBI should carry participatory land use planning in communities located near the river putting much consideration on land capability and suitability.

NBI should also carry out a livelihood analysis especially in communities along the Nile so as to come up with poverty eradication projects which are socially acceptable, applicable, economically viable and affordable. These will improve the welfare of the majority of the people at household level and this will act as an incentive towards sustainable utilization of the Nile basin resources.

Rather than building capacity in only scientific skills with regards Nile water resource management, we also recommend that the local knowledge base and management skills of the same should also be upgraded so as to have a strong foundation for integrated water resource management.

Since the NBI promote efficient use of the Nile water through proper irrigation methods, we recommend that the NBI should take caution about the salinazation problem that may arise thus leading to soil degradation and consequently poor agricultural yields. In additional, NBI should educate communities on how to use less agriculture inputs especially nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers that can cause water pollution (Eutrophication).

6. References:

Foulds, K., (2002): The Nile Basin Initiative: Challenges to Implementation. Paper presented

at the Managing Shared Waters Conference- 23-28 June 2002, Hamilton, Ontario,  Canada.

Guvele, A., C., (2003): The Nile Basin Initiative and its Implications in Post Conflict South

Sudan.  On line: http://cafnr.missouri.edu/iap/sudan/doc/nile-basin.pdf. (Retrieved on 30th 11.2008).

Tvedt, T. (2004). The river Nile in the age of the British. Political ecology and the quest for

economic power. London: I. B. Tauris, pp. 480.

World Bank, (2003a): Nile Basin Initiative, Shared Vision Program (SVP) Project-African

Region- Project Appraisal Document. InfoShop-World Bank, Vol. 1, Report No. 26222, pp. 170.

World Bank, (2003b): Nile Basin Initiative – Nile Transboundary Environmental Action

Project-Project Appraisal Document, InfoShop-World Bank, Vol.1, Report No. 24609, pp. 215

World Bank, (2003c): Confidence Building and Stakeholder Involvement : Nile Basin

Initiative (SVP) Project, African Region-Project Information Document. InfoShop-World Bank, Vol. 1 Report No. 26276, pp 4.

World Bank, (2003d): Nile Basin Initiative Applied Training Project-Project Information

Document. InfoShop-World Bank, Vol. 1, Report No. 26578, pp 10

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Sharing project-African Region-Project Information Document, InfoShop- World Bank, Vol. 1, Report Number, 30531. pp 10

World Bank, (2004b): Nile Basin Initiative – Shared Vision Program – Water Resources

Planning and Management Project- Integrated Safeguards Data Sheet. InfoShop-World Bank, Vol. 1, Report No. 26866, pp13.

World Bank, (2005a): Nile Basin Initiative – Shared Vision Program-Regional power trade

project-Project Appraisal Document. InfoShop-World Bank. Vol. 1, Report No.

34083, pp. 108

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Agricultural Production Project-African Region-Project Appraisal Document. InfoShop-World Bank, Vol. 1, Report No. 34084, pp 100

World Bank, (2008): Nile Basin Initiative Institutional Strengthening Project-Project

Information Document. InfoShop- World Bank, Report No. AB3787, pp 99.

What should be the defining principle of the Koroma administration National Development Strategy is balance. President Koroma cannot expect to eliminate national development challenges through a unilateral political agenda, to do everything and coordinate everything based on his All People’s Congress (APC) party ideology. His APC party with its “corporate agenda” for Sierra Leone rolled over the incumbent Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP) in a run-off that reflected the expectations and desires of a majority of Sierra Leoneans for far-reaching socio-economic change, institutional reform and full inclusion of the mostly youth and indigenous poor. If Koroma is to succeed to reduce Sierra Leone’s grinding poverty and the creation of a more effective, inclusive and just state, however—and he must if his leadership is going to be different from the SLPP administration it replaced—he will need to set priorities and consider trade-offs and show understanding and offer support as he grapples with explosive issues of judicial reforms, corruption and development policy.

The strategy strives for balance in three areas: between trying to prevail in eliminating corruption in his government and preparing for other contingencies; between institutionalizing capabilities such as nongovernmental engagement and supporting the relevance of NGOs as development stakeholders and maintaining NGO’s existing organizational independence and strategic edge in terms of advancing national development objectives through community involvement; and between retaining those cultural traits that have made grassroots involvement in development work possible and discouraging behaviors of NGOs that hamper their ability to do what needs to be done. “In its broadest sense, the term “nongovernment organization” [NGO] refers to organizations (i) not based in government; (ii) not created for financial or material gain; but (iii) created to address concerns such as social and humanitarian issues of development, individual and community welfare and well-being, disadvantage, and poverty, as well as environmental and natural resources protection, management, and improvement” (Asian Development Bank).

STRATEGY THINKING

The Koroma administration’s ability to deal with performance problems of NGOs will depend on its capacity in handling corruption in government. To be blunt, to fail—or to be seen to fail—in addressing corruption in government would be a disastrous blow to the APC party credibility, both among party supporters and voters and among opposition adversaries. Sierra Leoneans want to see serious effort to address corruption and the injustices of the legal system in the country—and the people of Sierra Leone have lost all patience in this regard. Still, there will continue to be high expectations for Koroma’s zero-tolerance against corruption to be seen to work in Sierra Leone.

Given its endemic nature, corruption, poverty, and the tragic history of violence, Sierra Leone in many ways poses an even more complex and difficult long-term challenge—one that, despite a strong rhetorical effort, will require significant determination and commitment to punish drastically for crimes of corruption for some time. And given the country’s ever changing political game, the resounding victory of Ernest Koroma in the 2007 run-off elections could prove just another wrong turn along the road going nowhere. Sierra Leoneans have already started to question the leadership of Koroma, who in his inauguration in September 2007 announced his zero-tolerance stance against corruption, but “has not had a lot of luck with his cabinet” (The Africa Report). The instances of presumed corruption and shady dealings [the controversial Income Electrix power deal, the suspended Transport Minister Ibrahim Kemoh Sesay 700kg haul of cocaine deal, and the Attorney General Abdul Serry-Kamal Seventy Five Billion Leones Wanza saga] confirm the self-seeking and predatory activities of APC officials, “and that despite the best intentions announced by President Koroma, he [seems to] lack the moral standing and political backbone to implement his ‘zero-tolerance’ policy for corruption and his call for accountability of his cabinet” (The New People Newspaper).  Koroma still has to demonstrate he is following a drummer different from that of every Sierra Leonean leader of the past 45 years.

What is dubbed the war on corruption is, in grim reality, a prolonged, nationwide conventional campaign—a struggle between the forces of blatant corruption and those of moderation. Direct ACC engagement will continue to play a role in the long-term effort against corrupt officials in government and the private sector. But over the short term, a determined leadership may have to use draconian rules of engagement to ending corruption in Sierra Leone. Where possible, what the ACC calls prompt service in addressing corruption cases  should be subordinated to concrete measures by a strong presidency aimed at definitely promoting better governance, economic programs that spur development, and efforts to address the grievances among the discontented which justified the civil conflict that so badly destroyed the social fabric of Sierra Leone over the years. It will take the active engagement as well of NGOs in a collaborative effort over a long time to educate, rebuild and advance infrastructural development objectives.

Sierra Leone is unlikely to experience another civil war—justifiable by the injustices resulting from bad governance and rampant corruption—anytime soon. But that does not mean it may not face similar challenges in a variety of locales. Where possible, a government strategy is to employ indirect approaches—primarily through building the capacity of partner NGOs and their administrative processes—to prevent festering problems from turning into crises that require costly and controversial direct civil conflict. In this kind of effort, the capabilities of the government’s allies and NGO partners may be as important as its own, and building their capacity is arguably as important as, if not more so than, the partisan bickering the government has to deal with.

The recent past vividly demonstrated the consequences of failing to address adequately the dangers posed by bad governance. Rebel networks found sympathy among Sierra Leoneans and strength within the chaos of social breakdown. The small-arms infested State quickly collapsed into chaos and criminality and the worst of catastrophes befell the Sierra Leone homeland—towns and villages were reduced to rubble by rebel attacks as a result of the failed State. The kinds of capabilities needed to deal with such a historically dismal scenario cannot therefore any longer be played down with political rhetoric. Even the smallest of crimes of corruption should require stringent and uncompromising methods of investigations and punishment to avoid this failed State scenario. As Transparency International chair Huguette Labelle has noted, “Stemming corruption requires strong oversight through parliaments, law enforcement, independent media and a vibrant civil society. When these institutions are weak, corruption spirals out of control with horrendous consequences for ordinary people and for justice and equality in societies more broadly” (NGLS Go Between).

In many ways, the country’s national development capabilities are still coping with the consequences of the 1990s, when, with the complicity of the civil war, key instruments of the government of Sierra Leone regulatory mechanisms were reduced or allowed to wither on the corridors of power.  

“Sierra Leone has been a major recipient of foreign aid since the end of a devastating 11-year civil war in 2002. But government, donors and citizens are all questioning how effectively this aid is being used. Allegations of misappropriation of donor funds, both by government actors and NGOs, threaten this inflow. One of the government’s principal partners, the British Department for International Development, withheld aid in protest against such anomalies, for most of 2007 and early 2008 (Fofana/IPS, Freetown). Besides, the Government of Sierra Leone has not maintained a constructive relationship with NGOs.  However, the global push towards reducing poverty has created a new convergence among development practitioners and policymakers as the means of increasing access to new initiatives that will promote good governance and help reduce poverty. Citizen participation has increasingly been taken seriously to increase opportunity for lower income and other excluded populations whose interest are marginalized in classic representative institutions to influence policymaking processes. The government is beginning to appreciate the relevance of civil society in development—that community development lies at the heart of a strong, association-based civil society.

In this regard, the Koroma administration can assume more of the tasks of fostering effective collaboration with local and international NGOs for peace, security and development. To truly achieve victory as the High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness defined it –”to bring new voices into a review of how aid is managed, and to sketch out a course for greater transparency, accountability and ultimately impact on the lives of the world’s poor—to attain a political objective” (Fofana/IPS, Freetown)–the Sierra Leone Government needs an NGO Coordination Unit whose ability to facilitate the diversion of huge donor funds to the NGO community is matched by its ability to use active evaluations and reviews as learning tools for itself and its development partners.  “The role of the Sierra Leone Association of NGOs (SLANGO), formed in January 1994, to coordinate NGO activities in order that efforts are not duplicated and resources not wasted” (BNET Business Network) has to be differentiated from what the NGO Unit at MODEP is doing; also to understand SLANGO’s relevance in development work.

Given these realities, the NGO Unit of MODEP has, however, been seen to make some impressive strides in recent years. “The revised National NGO Policy following the wide range of consultations held at national and regional levels with the involvement of all stakeholders especially the NGO Community, Line Ministries and Civil Society in the preparation of the policy [was a laudable effort]. The NGO Unit facilitated several meetings with other ministries particularly the Ministry of Finance, the National Revenue Authority (NRA), the Ministry of Labor and other stakeholders to discuss among other things: Duty Free Concessions, Resident/Work Permits and Taxation etc.” (NGO Unit/MODEP).

It can also be suggested that a New Development Operations Manual for a New National Development Strategy is developed to incorporate the lessons of recent years in NGO service delivery doctrine. “Train and equip” programs will allow for quicker improvements in the development capacity of partner organizations. And various initiatives should be undertaken that will better integrate and coordinate government efforts with civilian society agencies as well as engage the expertise of the private sector, including nongovernmental organizations and academia.

ORGANIZATIONAL PROBLEMS IN PERSPECTIVE 

Even as international NGOs hone and institutionalize new and modern management methods, the Sierra Leone Government still has to contend with the organizational challenges posed by local NGOs. The images of NGOs seen by many local people as corrupt and undeserving of support are a reminder that these Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and their management processes do still matter.  NGOs in the country should be seen to improve their and several partners’ documentation of results, including the development of good monitoring indicators.

In addition, there is the potentially toxic mix of inadequate financial management of NGOs and inadequate reporting on budgetary issues to the Government of Sierra Leone’s NGO Unit. What all these problems portend is that the monitoring of development aid continues to be a major challenge for Sierra Leone and that a thorough framework of monitoring both recurrent and development activities must be put in place. The Government of Sierra Leone cannot take these organizational issues of NGOs for granted and needs to invest in the programs, platforms, and personnel that will ensure their relevance as development stakeholders.

But it is also important to keep some perspective. As much as the MODEP’s NGO Unit has come up with revised policy regulations with collated information in respect of funds disbursed by donors to NGOs for the implementation of programs it must be remembered that what is driving MODEP is a desire to exorcise the sloppy performance of NGOs over the years and to make them more relevant as development stakeholders—not an ideologically driven campaign to micro manage NGOs in the country. “Understandably, the logic behind massive NGO presence in Sierra Leone was to create a civic culture, pluralize the political, economic and social arena and bridge the gap between the masses and the State. So NGOs thus act as intermediaries between, what donors call ‘the unorganized masses’ and the State and are expected to represent the people and express their voices in policymaking. In fact, among NGOs is a small sector of voluntary organizations that genuinely monitor regimes, engage in advocacy on behalf of the poor and serves as watchdogs in ensuring that government contractors deliver services”.

It is true that the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) with clear link to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is the main focus of Government and its development partners. “The PRSP calls for pro-poor sustainable growth. However, achieving this means maintaining macro-economic stability IMF-style with low inflation and strict fiscal deficits, despite research by CSOs and development agencies which seriously question the poverty impact of these types of policies” (European Network on Debt and Development). NGOs’ participation was recognized in the process. NGOs could now play an active role in the implementation process by shifting their interventions and assistance from relief/humanitarian programs to sustainable infrastructural development programs. Answerability and transparency, adequate financial management and adequate budgetary reporting are to be the watch words in the new dispensation.

NGOs in Sierra Leone may have their organizational problems, but they can be quite relevant stakeholders in promoting people’s participation in poverty reduction programs. Use of funds has not been cost effective for most NGOs but the thematic areas most of these NGOs focus on (health, education, skills development, micro-finance, skills training, etc.), are relevant for the end users that are often poor and vulnerable children, youth and women. These are priority support areas that are in accordance with Sierra Leone’s development priorities and the PRSP as well international development agencies’ priorities.

Now that the performance bar has to be raised for the government and NGOs following their dismal performance in terms of handling aid money, the Sierra Leone Government must now endeavor to maintain a credible strategic relationship with NGOs through effectively evaluating, reviewing and monitoring their activities. Toward this end, the steps the NGO Unit at MODEP is taking to return excellence and accountability to NGO stewardship are commendable. Presidential and Parliamentary oversight may also be necessary for a more reliable and sustainable NGO Unit coordination effort.

When thinking about the range of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of non-governmental organizations as development partners in Sierra Leone it is reasonable to understand that NGOs come in many shapes and sizes. Data used in the SWOT analysis stem from multiple sources including statistical reports, literature review, regulations and policies, and research articles by NGO professionals. These findings should provide a valuable reference for the Government and the international development community who are interested in developing excellence in the civil society organization which interestingly can provide some feed back into the effectiveness aspects of the development analysis.

Strengths

Grassroots (local) NGOs

Have a positive presence on the ground.
Demonstrate ability to seek common ground and commitment to poor and marginalized grassroots populations.
Enjoy confidence and trust of local populations.
Have experience-based knowledge of cultural, political and socio-economic conditions of indigenous populations.
Understand vulnerabilities unique to local beneficiaries.
Can achieve extreme flexibility with fewer resources and lower costs.
Possess valuable experience, content and fundamental working knowledge about local trade issues and business contacts in their field.

International NGOs

Have global appeal and have developed industry-wide reputation for positive work.
Good at generating and mobilizing resources and core competencies for their operations.
Ability to resolve issues of legitimacy and to address political and policy constraints.
Ability to harness expert opinion to influence public opinion and policy-makers.
Have paid core staff to ensure the quality of project work.
Possess valuable experience, content and fundamental working knowledge about international trade issues and the labor market and business contacts in their field.

Weaknesses

Grassroots (local) NGOs

May have limited financial and expert resourcesto support end-user development.
May have limited strategic perspectives and weak linkages with other actors in development.
May have limited managerial and organizational capacities.
May sometimes miss the big picture on macro perspectives on capital markets, economy and geopolitics vis-à-vis community development.
Indigenous NGO operators may be prone to corruption.
Because of their voluntary nature, there may be questions regarding their accountability and credibility.
May have difficulty managing operations on financially sustainable basis.
Are not sustainable on membership fees alone.

International NGOs

Some advocacy NGOs working to influence the policies and practices of governments, development institutions have limited implementation capacity.
Questions sometimes arise concerning their motivations and objectives, and the degree of accountability they accept for the ultimate impact of policies and positions they advocate. Sometimes accused of “selling out” when they work with government or corporations.
May find it hard to placate or manipulate special interests.
 Suffer fluctuations in maintaining non-profit donations revenue streams.
May have limited experience with poor populations and operations may not reflect the needs of communities.

Opportunities

Grassroots NGOs

Can effectively work with community partners to assess local problems and opportunities and to promote export development programs.
 Ability to implement successful training programs and advance participatory development.
Ability to integrate their local expertise and experience in health and education initiatives in community development programs.
Can be clearing-houses for local trade information.

International NGOs

Ability to work out credible partnerships with government and private corporations to mobilize public opinion to increase influence on poverty reduction programs and trade issues.
Effective at bringing the voice of efficient organizational practices into NGO work in developing countries.
Ability to contribute sector-specific expertise to help producers add value, improve quality and find new export markets.
Quite familiar with political and social accountability mechanisms that complement their interventions and advocacy work.

Threats

Grassroots NGOs

Isolated and poorly coordinated efforts may have negative program outcomes.
Lackluster relationship with trade and export development corporations causing unsustainable initiatives and lack of trade development solutions.
Lacks technical capacity toconnect poor people with trade and export opportunities.I

International NGOs

Tendency to ignore the voices of the poor represented by the experience and professional input of local agencies when defining the dialogue and public understanding of trade and development issues.
Inclination to compete by lobbying against one another thereby distracting policy-makers on major issues.
Often accused of hijacking the macroeconomic policy making dominated by technocrats and external consultants in the process.

Overall, by sorting the SWOT issues of grassroots (local) and international NGOs into planning categories one can obtain a system which presents a practical way of assimilating the internal and external information about NGO work in Sierra Leone, delineating short and long term priorities, and defining and developing coordinated, goal-directed actions, and allowing an easy way to build management teams which can achieve the objectives of development growth and the essence of civil society. In reality, as the philosopher Michael Ignatieff has noted “without civil society, democracy remains an empty shell”. One can expect to see the efficacy of Civil Society Organizations to influence members of the wider public that adhere to their values and beliefs to engage in development programs at State and community levels.

Therefore, notwithstanding local NGO’s relatively dismal record they are still clearly quite relevant to the development equation. NGOs strengths can be harnessed with well coordinated capacity building programs.  Conversely, international NGOs can develop a partner strategy of supporting and working through strong professional local partners as an effective tool for having a greater development impact than being a self-implementing agency. NGOs can also be very effective as learning organizations by providing important support to build their own staff’s and partners’ capacities, through individual training activities, annual partner meetings and conferences, learning exchange between partners, and partner self-assessments of training needs.  Moreover, NGOs can also be very effective with regular active evaluations and reviews as learning tools for themselves and their partners.

Just as one can expect learning should be at the heart of these organizations, so too, should the Government of Sierra Leone seek a better balance in the portfolio of capabilities it has—the types of programs against corruption in government fielded, the punishment in place for crimes of corruption, the training done.

Moreover, given the development challenges Sierra Leone is struggling with—and given, for example, the struggles to field up hospitals and clinics, schools and colleges, maintenance of urban and rural roads, and the HIV threats to the society—the time has come to think hard about how to institutionalize the capabilities of NGOs and get them adequately fielded quickly. The NGO policy modernization programs of the NGO Unit at MODEP should seek a 99 percent solution to the organizational limitations of NGOs in the country and to build the kind of innovative thinking and flexibility capable of supporting rigid development processes.

SUSTAINING ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE

The ability to fight corruption in government and empower NGOs sometimes simultaneously fits squarely within the finest traditions of good governance, more so because adequate financial management, including adequate reporting on budgetary issues is key to sustained organizational performance of NGOs. For most NGOs in Sierra Leone, unsatisfactory practices with regard to vehicle and fuel use, procurement procedures and weak financial reporting and accounting are weaknesses which are also typical issues in bad government. Improving documentation of results, including the development of good monitoring indicators is also essential for sustaining organizational performance. The non performance of NGOs is coming at a frightful human, financial, and political cost. There has to be organizational improvements in government so that NGOs can be more resourceful and relevant to the development equation.

One of the enduring issues the NGO Unit at MODEP’s struggles with is whether personnel and organizational systems designed to coordinate the work of NGOs in the country will be able to reflect the importance of advising, training, and equipping NGOs in Sierra Leone—something still not considered a career-enhancing path for the best and brightest organizational development experts.  Another is whether the revised policy regulations can be adapted well enough and fast enough to empower NGOs—or, more significant, to build the capacity of local NGOs to make them more resourceful.

One can make the argument in favor of institutionalizing NGO skills and the ability to conduct stability and support operations. This has to be done and is necessary for maintaining the current advantage of the relevance of NGOs as development partners. Apart from recent revisions of NGO policy regulations there has been no strong, deeply rooted constituency inside MODEP or elsewhere for institutionalizing the capabilities necessary to support NGO work in Sierra Leone—and to quickly meet the important needs of civil society organizations engaged in development work in Sierra Leone.

Think of the important work of NGOs in Sierra Leone.  NGOs often make the impossible possible by doing what governments cannot or will not do especially when new challenges crowd the national agenda. Increasingly, NGOs operate outside existing formal frameworks, moving independently to meet their goals and establishing new standards that governments, institutions, and corporations are themselves compelled to follow through force of public opinion.

Some humanitarian and development NGOs, for instance, have a natural advantage because of their perceived neutrality and experience. Amnesty International – Sierra Leone Section, for example, (as listed on the webpage directory of NGOs maintained by UNDP Sierra Leone promotes and protects human rights through advocacy and human rights education—maintaining documentation on human rights abuses and violations carried out during the ten year rebel war in Sierra Leone which proved helpful to the TRC in Sierra Leone. Other groups such as the Campaign for Good Governance (CGG) is a democracy-supporting NGO in Sierra Leone which promotes the building of democratic institutions, transparency and accountability in government, active citizen participation in the political process, voter education, human rights, and the rule of law. The Catholic Youth Organization (CYO) organizes religious, educational, social and cultural programs to meet the spiritual, mental and recreational needs of members. The Centre for Coordination of Youth Activities provides training in leadership, peace building, skills development, and community development. The Kailahun District Development Foundation (KADDF), a district-wide non-governmental organization offers viable solutions to the pervasive problems of poverty and serves as a clearinghouse for outside agencies interested in carrying out programs in the Kailahun district. The Sierra Leone Adult Education Association (SLADEA) helps to reduce the high rate of illiteracy among adults in the non-formal sector; to enlist the co-operation and support of other NGOs with a view to motivating various forms of people’s participation especially women and youth in national development; to achieve public recognition and support for non-formal education sector. FORUT’s thematic areas (health, education, skills development, micro-finance, skills training, etc.), are relevant for the end users that are often poor and vulnerable children, youth and women. Action Aid is one of the largest NGOs operating in Sierra Leone promoting food security through agricultural programs to ensure seeds are available and crop production continues.

There is no doubt, therefore, that modernization programs will continue to have, and deserve, strong institutional and parliamentary support. There has to be the enabling environment needed to make sure that the capabilities needed for the complex organizational issues of NGOs also has strong and sustained institutional support over the long term. The need for an NGO Unit establishment that can make and implement decisions quickly in support of NGOs working in Sierra Leone is necessary.

In the end, the NGO capabilities needed cannot be separated from the cultural traits and the management structure of the institutions the Sierra Leone Government has: the signals sent by how funds are managed, what projects are funded, what skills are used to implement projects and how personnel are trained. As Foreign Minister Lloyd Axworthy has said, “Clearly, one can no longer relegate NGOs to simple advisory or advocacy roles. . . . They are now part of the way decisions have to be made.”

As Yale professor Steve Charnovitz has observed, NGO involvement seems to depend on two factors: the needs of government and the capabilities of NGOs. A good democracy encompasses all NGOs which strive to create formal but flexible systems fostering dynamism and self-adjustment. NGOs ought to be a part of the alternative development paradigm, because the State, its institutions, and public policy, are unable to address a host of issues of underdevelopment all alone.

Evidently, there are many NGOs today in Sierra Leone in different shapes and forms with substantial amounts of donor and individual funds being diverted through them for developmental purposes. These NGOs are thought to be participatory, community-oriented, democratic, cost effective, and better at targeting the poorest of the poor, although in recent years, the nimbus of righteousness around NGOs has almost disappeared, and there is wide acknowledgement of their inability to deliver what is expected from them. Many lessons, however, about NGOs in Sierra Leone present themselves. Two of the most important are an understanding of organizational challenges and a sense of determination to change. The determination and national reach of NGOs has been an indispensable contributor to national peace and stability. The NGO Unit at MODEP should be clear about what effective organizational management by competent operators of NGOs can accomplish. No matter what their aims, all organizations share two things in common: They are made up of people, and certain individuals are in charge of these people. NGOs therefore need strong managers to lead its staff toward accomplishing development goals. And these managers are more than just leaders—they are problem solvers, cheerleaders, and planners as well.

Think of the intricacies of management, for instance. No matter what type of organization they work in, NGO executives are generally responsible for a group of individuals’ performance. As leaders, they must expect their fellow workers to work earnestly to reach common NGO goals. As the management guru Peter Drucker said, “Executives owe it to the organization and to their fellow workers not to tolerate nonperforming individuals in important jobs.”

In national affairs, “aid can work where there is good governance,” the United States Congressional Representative Lee H. Hamiltonwrote in his book on – A Legacy of Honor: The Congressional Papers of Lee H. Hamilton, U.S. House of Representative 1965-1998 Indiana Ninth District, “… and usually fails where governments are unable or unwilling to commit aid to improve the lives of their people.” It is thus believed any responsible National Development Strategy for Sierra Leone should provide a balanced approach to enhancing responsibilities and preserving the relevance of NGOs as development partners.

Local government structure in Sierra Leone essentially consists of a system of 19 elected councils, broken down into 5 city councils (Freetown, Bo, Kenema, Koidu-New Sembehun and Makeni); the municipality of Bonthe and 13 district councils consisting of the 12 districts   (Pujehun, Bo, Moyamba, Bonthe, Kenema, Kailahun, Kono, Tonkolili, Bombali, Port Loko, Kambia, Koinadugu) and the western area rural district.

While researching the role and effectiveness of these local councils since their reintroduction by the Tejan-Kabbah administration in 2004, I have been especially struck by the political power paradigm shift that has occurred in local government administration, development, financing and delivery of devolved services in Sierra Leone. For while there is understandably much emphasis on the central government’s role and responsibility for nationwide development, it is worth noting that enactment of the Local Government Act, 2004 largely subordinated the central government and Paramount Chiefs authority and powers to the supremacy of local councils for virtually all development activities in the relevant council localities.

In the case of paramount chiefs, their marginal role in the affairs of the council is reflected in their membership of the councils. The Local Government Act clearly stipulated the number of their membership in the various councils, as for example Pujehun district can only have 2 paramount chief representatives in the council and in the case of Bo district only 3 paramount chief members can be represented in the Bo district council.

It is thus the responsibility of the government, opposition political parties, civil society and especially the requisite local government entities to ensure that the decentralization model as enshrined in the constitution and laws of our country are upheld and not allowed to be subjugated to the centralized and non-representative system that operated during the Siaka Stevens era.

I am however especially concerned, as the local councils and the various majority political parties they represent, do not appear to be adequately cognizant of their legal and political supremacy role, especially in spearheading development and governance  within their various localities, and seem to be ceding to the central government and paramount chiefs , though unconstitutionally their powers. This brings to mind the recent Kenema City Council’s decision to terminate the services of the chief Administrator and the Procurement Officer and the apparent decision by the Vice-President, Chief Sam Sumana to inappropriately and unconstitutionally instruct the Resident Minister, East to have the Council reinstate the sacked council employees. Part V1 Section 32 (2) of the Local Government Act, 2004 clearly states that “…….a local council need not consult …in respect of the appointment of staff….”.

The office of the vice-president has no constitutional authority to supervise the local councils as erroneously asserted by Kenema district APC and PMDC party Chairmen in their protest letter of December 29, 2009. The appropriate constitutional body is the Local Government Service Commission, whose composition does not include the vice president, and whose members according to section 36(2) “shall be appointed by the President with the approval of Parliament”. It is my fervent hope that the Kenema City Council and other local councils will constitutionally challenge any efforts by the political parties and the central government to usurp their lawful authority in this area.

As a participatory constitutional democracy, a legal basis thus exists within the constitutional framework for political checks and balances on the central government, in the allocation of funds and resources in a transparent manner with a concomitant responsibility by the local administrations to be held liable by their constituents for failures to “initiate, draw up and execute development plans for the locality”, as mandated for the Local Government Act.

In a prior article entitled “Decentralization: the key to political and economic empowerment for local government administration in Sierra Leone”, published in 1996,  while advocating the return of elected local councils,  I had argued that “the re- institution of elected municipal, district and town councils must be enshrined in the new constitution to serve as checks and balances on the all pervasive influence of a retrogressive, self-interest oriented and inefficient bureaucracy from again hijacking the developmental aspirations of our people.  These councils must also be empowered to formulate and propagate local socio-economic developmental policies and to manage the local administration with minimal central government interference”.

LOCAL COUNCIL FUNCTIONS:

This shift is clearly enshrined in Part V, section 20 (1) of the Local Government Act, which states inter alia that: “A local council shall be the highest political authority in the locality and shall have legislative and executive powers to be exercised …..and shall be responsible, generally for promoting the development of the locality and the welfare of the people in the locality with the resources at its disposal and with such resources and capacity as it can mobilize from the central government and its agencies, national and international organizations and the private sector”.

The functions of these local councils are breathtaking in their scope and include as an example the initiation and maintenance of programs for development of basic infrastructure, works and services in the locality and the performance of devolved functions from the central government.

In addition to self-revenue generating activities within their constitutional purview, the local councils are also funded by annual block grants from the central government based on a defined percentage approved annually by Parliament in addition to payments for devolved services performed on behalf of the central government. For example, the 2007 budget by the erstwhile SLPP administration allocated the following sums to the Pujehun District Council:

Administration:            SLL168,152,409 (Non Salary Expenditure) Health:                           SLL588,135,315 Education:                     SLL1,183,188,478 Agriculture:                   SLL137,601,435 Solid Waste:                  SLL14,621,753 Rural Water Services:  SLL36,615,541 Others:                            SLL54,613,359 Local Government:       SLL317,530,417 Road Grant:                    SLL 159,641,424

Thus, the total vertical allocation by the central government to the Pujehun district local council for FY 2007 totaled SLL2,660,100,130( Source: Government Budget for the Financial Year, 2007-Annex 5 Summary of Grants Allocated to Local Councils).

Clearly as people from Pujehun district or visitors can attest the above mentioned allocated sums, in addition to prior fiscal allocations from 2004 to 2006, in no way reflected the level of developmental activities, if any undertaken by the local council under the Chairmanship of Mr. Nasiru Deen Magona. This is however not only a Pujehun district isolated issue, as the same scenario can be replicated in all the local councils in the country, as an assessment and analysis of their various allocations will confirm.

PARTISAN COUNCILS:

In an effort at decentralization following the inordinate concentration of socio-economic, political and administrative decision making powers in the hands of the central government in Freetown; witnessed particularly during the Siaka Stevens era, local council elections are today conducted on a partisan basis, with candidates representing the various national political parties.  As partisan local councils, the various majority political parties are thus concomitantly held accountable for the efficient functioning and developmental strides or lack thereof being undertaking by their representative councilors, chairmen and mayors.

Of the 19 elected local councils in the country following the recent 2008 elections, the governing APC party controls all the councils in the northern and western area, including  Bombali, Port-Loko, Kambia, Tonkolili, Koinadugu, Western Area and Western Rural Area, while the opposition SLPP controls the Pujehun, Bo, Kenema, Kailuhun, Moyamba and Bonthe district councils. The PMDC opposition party controls only the municipality of Bonthe with a few elected councilors in other southeastern districts.

However a review of the socio-political and economic performance of most of these councils leaves much to be desired, as reflected in the Pujehun district council example; in both policy direction from the political parties and implementation of development programs by their agents. In fact one is left with the impression that political parties have largely abrogated their roles in the developmental process of their constituents, for which these councils were designed, and are resorting to the old model of looking forward to the central government for political patronage and largess to accomplish their constitutional mandates.

As an example, the main opposition SLPP party has continued to maintain total dominance in all city, district and chiefdom councils in the entire southern and eastern regions of the country. These councils with central government subventions, grants and self-revenue generating capacities not to mention ability to enter into commercial contracts with financial institutions and attract funding from both national and international institutions have however remained dormant.

The opposition SLPP must be made to understand that they have a responsibility to their electorates in these local council wards and our people do not have to wait until another election before development can be initiated and implemented by the local councils under their political control.

CONCLUSION:

“Power” is according to the historian and political philosopher Walter Rodney, “the ultimate determinant in human society, being basic to the relations within any group and between groups. It implies an ability to defend one’s interests and if necessary to impose one’s will by any means available. In relations between peoples, the question of power determines maneuverability in bargaining, the extent to which a people survive as a physical and cultural entity. When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another, that in itself is a form of underdevelopment”.

The question now that deserves answering is how are the political parties and their respective leaderships engaging and utilizing the enormous constitutional authority granted all local councils in effectuating local development, job creation, provision of basic infrastructural amenities and services for their respective constituents?  They must be seen engaging these councils with their various party programs and policies to ensure that development is embarked on and undertaken.  We can no longer afford the old model of waiting for the central government to initiate development programs before services in the various localities are provided. That is the responsibility of the local councils and their respective parties, which must no longer be ceded to any central government, however benevolent, for that will be viewed as a form of underdevelopment.

Personal life is a term ascribed to describe an individual human beings activities and lifestyles. People’s personal lives have changed throughout history and vary through different cultures and socio-economic environments.

Definition
Their surroundings, personal physicality and economic constraints determine an individual’s personal life. Technologically and economically advanced countries tend to produce a society where personal lives are rich with opportunity and career choice. Western societies such as those in North America and Western Europe encourage inhabitants to broaden their personal life and to heal problems that may arise through the day-to-day activities and stresses, with counselling and life coaching.

Cultural Differences Personal life has become a modern phrase ingrained in contemporary society. People have enjoyed personal lives for millennia, enjoying employment, activities and past times, but the notion of an individual personal life is very much a modern phenomenon. In the United States the right to a level of privacy and the pursuit are constitutional rights of the general public. In the age of technology the developed world enjoy a huge range of activities, employment as well as communication possibilities that allow individuals to communicate freely with persons all over the world without hindrance. Third world or developing nations have a varied perception of the personal life, often work and family life form the main bulk of what may be considered a personal life. The opportunities are limited due to financial and technological constraints, meaning that they simply cannot access the same level of pastimes, employment or counseling aid.

Career and Pastimes The modern view of a personal life distinguishes a distinct gulf between work life and home life. Personal life is often seen as the activities that a person enjoys away from the constraints of a working or even home environment. With the increase in high stress and highly specified jobs the distinctions between working culture and that of the supposed personal life need to be clear. It is rare for the two to combine, work life will take precedence for a large portion of time but once concluded most members of the working community will enjoy activities as a form of escapism and relaxation to wind down after the working day.

Development in the global world today requires the organization of social and economic activity on a much larger scale. Increased scale brings with it opportunities for a wide range of benefits associated with lower unit costs of production, increased specialization and competition, access to a wider range of technology, and greater sharing of ideas and experience in all areas of Endeavour. As Most countries from Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) are very small, not only in population, but also in terms of economic output, it is imperative for us to approach the global challenges leveraging our combined population and resources. Efforts are required on all these fronts to overcome some of the development challenges of today’s fast-changing world.

ECOWAS Treaty, right from its inception therefore envisioned: a Community in which every individual and corporate citizen has the opportunity to realize his or its potentials; a Community in which social and economic justice is enshrined in law and embedded in practice; a Community from which poverty, unemployment and social exclusion have been banished; Community in which all citizens willingly accept a responsibility to contribute to the welfare of their fellow citizens and to the common good of the region; and one which serves as a vehicle for the exercise of the collective strength of the region, and the affirmation of the collective identity of the ECOWAS people. In pursuit of this vision, an initiative to establish a Common Investment Market (CIM) was approved by the ECOWAS Authority of Heads of State and Government on 19th December, 2008 by their endorsement of three Supplementary Acts on Investment Rules, Competition Rules and Competition Authority.

The Acts when implemented would drive the single economic space within which business and labor operate; in order to stimulate greater productive efficiency, higher levels of domestic and foreign investment, increased employment, and growth of intra-regional trade and of extra-regional exports. Such internal market would become an appropriate response for the entire ECOWAS, its firms and citizens to meet the challenges of globalization. As it is essential for economic growth, competitiveness and employment, the implementation of the CIM would enhance convergence and confidence, reinforcing the enlarged ECOWAS’s ability to act as a single entity in a global context. The CIM would promote freedom of movement of goods, services, capital, business enterprise and people within the existing customs union. This requires harmonization of policies, laws, and regulations; enhanced monetary cooperation, and common external economic policies, among others.

In light of the ‘information deficit’ regarding the CIM initiative among individuals and corporate citizens of the Community and the ‘credibility gap’ regarding its implementation following the slow pace of implementation of previous protocols, some are apprehensive about the possible adverse effects of consequent increased competition that is likely to arise from the CIM implementation process. In this regard, it is obvious that a much greater effort at public education and consciousness-raising is necessary. ECOWAS Commission believes that articulating a single development vision under the CIM offers an opportunity to show the regional public that it can be an instrument for achieving, within a regional framework, certain development goals that are difficult to achieve individually by member states. A single vision for the implementation of the CIM provides a framework of shared objectives to guide policies and the setting of priorities.
Propagating the awareness of the ECOWAS Common Investment Market (ECIM) among ECOWAS Citizens (corporate and individual) require the deployment of information and publicity materials on the initiative through conventional channels to which they are familiar. ECOWAS Commission, organized a sensitization workshop for the Media on the CIM. The mass media, comprising the newspapers, television and radio broadcast stations and outdoor publicity provides such regular modes of communication, education, social orientation and awareness building among these regional stakeholders. The extensive geographical and political reach of the mass media gives it the edge to communicate the nature and benefits of the CIM to all strata of the Community and assess the operational impact of the initiative on Member States. Feedback from the media workshop would become a veritable decision input in policy formulation, development, coordination and control, while steering the initiative toward the desired objectives.
The workshop recognizes the following as key issues at marketing the ECIM initiative:

The creationv of a platform or forum for journalists to interact with ECOWAS Commission on an ongoing basis around the ECIM initiative;

There is need to promotev awareness about the initiative through other print media ( ie hand bills ,posters, brochures etc ) distributed to strategic places and strategic events within and outside the region;

Media strategy should equally embracev creatively, the use of music, movies, cinema, theatre, radio and television in informing and educating individuals and corporate citizens of ECOWAS about the CIM initiative;

There is also need to engage advertising as av complementary tool in the implementation process of the ECIM;

Other tools identified in the enlightenment program on ECIM include: new media (i.e. SMS on Telephone, E-Mailing on Internet, Face book, you tube etc);

Therev is need for private and public sectors institutions and players to collaborate with ECOWAS Commission in the implementation of the ECIM process and;
Create an annual award for rewarding excellent performance amongst journalists and media houses that support the ECIM initiative.

Global trade businesses have to take care of challenges and risks at various parts. Some risks are same as the risk and challenges faced by a local business but others are unique to the international business scenario. Even the challenges that are related by definition vary in nature. For instance both forms of businesses have to countenance economic challenges, but a global trade business will be facing several issues linked to international financial markets that don’t concern local businesses as much. They are more of a challenge in nature than risks and most of them can be taken care of through appropriate preparation. Keep reading to identify with these challenges better.

Global Trade – Challenge, Scheduling and Approach:

The very first challenge for a global enterprise is to formulate an international approach and then execute it. The administrators and those at decision-making positions often find it hard to alter their thought pattern, which is not good to work in international paradigm. There are numerous worldwide businesses but only a few of them have really accepted a good international approach. Though the situation is improving with more and more professionals and trained graduates taking on the management positions. Nevertheless, global business management needs additional ordinary management, foreseeing and control talents.

Foreign Politics:

Political expertise is a must for everyone but it becomes all so vital when working at global stage. If some plans were appropriate for your trade, a change in ruling government can bring strong changes in those plans. Political disarray will bring down the financial system and that can affect your business. To avoid safeguard business from such unhelpful bangs, you need to make sound political decisions.

Economic and Financial Challenges:

It begins from organizing the resources to initiate global trade and consist of everything like variation in exchange rate, international financial crisis (or some financial crises in the host nation), change in oil rates, international price rises or tariff barriers imposed by the host ruling party, also the export related rules of your own government.

Natural Catastrophe, Environment and War or Terrorism:

Various multinational businesses have to countenance severe opposition by some environment friendly organizations. Citizens are more worried about water and air pollution these days as it is becoming a severe danger to their health. Some natural calamity such as earthquake and floods or some kind of civil war breaking out in the host nation is also in the catalog of potential challenges. A fresh challenge that a global trade business has to bear these days in some specific nation is the danger of bombing, violence or terror campaigns.

PROFILE AND CHALLENGES OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS IN WEST AFRICA

1.1             BACKGROUND

 

The West African sub region has been heavily affected by wars as a result of internal conflicts based on ethnic tensions and rivalries, political instability, disputes over the control of natural resources, natural disasters, poverty, food insecurity and the quests for development have all resulted in significant population displacement.

 

This pain in the neck can further be attributed to excessive state intervention into Economic and Socio – Politico activities of West African Economies. Instead of having a Neo Liberal State, Africa witnessed an Interventionist State in which you have state interventions into economic activities instead of allowing the forces of demand and supply to determine the allocation of resources.. As a result, the region experienced macroeconomic imbalances in which economic growth slowed for the past thirty years.

The outcome of these state interventions contributed to a decline or decrease in per capita income, deficit in foreign trade and decrease in investment and savings. Size and Characters of state institutions were determined by:  rent seeking policies, organised crimes that accelerated corruption, real wage decreases, monopoly and price controls used as political tools. All of these formed the main elements of the economic report cards of West African countries as follows: Huge fiscal deficit where government expenditure was and continue to be greater than revenue, balance of payment deficit since foreign exchange earnings were insufficient to meet expenditure on imported goods and services, rising inflation, and above all, increase in unemployment. The youths who formed the junk of the population remain unemployed and this threatened their livelihood.

 

The Socio – Politico Culture disclosed the disregard for human rights, freedom of association and expression, the rule of law favoured few only those affluent in society, political power was by lineage and in the hands of few. National resource distribution suffered in the hands of party patronage. Regions with different political ideologies were left to suffer and face the reality of having a different political view.

 

Disgruntled youths and some elderly were left with only an option and that was to resort to armed conflict in defense of their freedom and survival. These gave birth to outflow and inflow of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons in the West African Sub Region, hence the debate on IDPs in West Africa for my presentation.

 

A case in point include the Liberian civil war that started in 1989, the eleven years civil war in Sierra Leone that ended in 2002, political crisis in Togo in 2005, Casamance Province of Senegal, Religious and Resource conflict in Nigeria, Cote d’Ivoire in 2005 etc. Therefore one could easily say that crisis in the sub region is a function of economic, social and political factors as thus:

 

WAC = f (eco, soc, pol)

Where:

 WAC = West Africa Crisis (dependent variable)

eco = economic (independent variable)

soc = social                                   “

pol =political                                “

 

1.2       INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS (IDPs)

 

Internally Displaced Persons are those uprooted from their homes or communities facing untold suffering due to armed conflict, natural or man made disasters, or economic hardship. There are two major causes of forced displacement, both of them stemming from lack of security.

 

Firstly, people move away from their homes when their lives are threatened by armed conflict, discrimination, violence or some times intimidation. This poses lots of uncertainties about the future. Some people for the first time face the experience of losing or separated from their love ones, expose to physical harm, loss of their normal way of life, and usually some find themselves as destitute in the new environment.
Secondly, people leave their homes because their livelihoods are threatened. Hostility and insecurity makes it impossible for them to earn a living or to access essential services, because they can no longer lean to their fields, trade their products or reach their markets. This disrupts their access to education, water supply, health care and other necessary services.

 

However, can displacement be prevented? One could say yes. This is so because displacement is a violation of International Humanitarian Law (IHL). Where there is strict adherence to IHL, displacement can be prevented.

 

On the other hand, it is difficult to prevent displacement when once individuals and communities are under immense pressure in which life and dignity is at risk. When this happens, preventing displacement seems impossible. It is then the responsibility of International Agencies to assist these people in the best way possible to reduce their sufferings.

 

2.0       Profile of IDPs in West Africa

2.1       Introduction:

Because of the complexity of internally Displace Persons in West Africa, a first regional conference on Internal Displacement was held in Abuja, Nigeria from 26th – 28th April 2006. This was organised by the Brookings – Bern Project. All major stakeholders in the region were in attendance and the representative of the UN Secretary General on human Rights of internally Displaced Persons; Walter Kalin attended and gave the keynote address.

 

 In West Africa, we have been overwhelmed by displacement for the past decade. Rebellion in the Southern Casamance province of Senegal led to major displacement. Religious, Ethnic and Resource related conflicts in Nigeria are thought to have displaced hundreds of thousands of people. Political crisis in Togo in 2005 is another case in point in which thousands were also displaced etc. For the purpose of this lecture, I will focus on few regions for one simple reason; the nature and character of conflicts that led to displacement.

 

 

2.2       Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone experienced the most brutal civil war in the 21st century. This conflict started from the level of a problem, systematically promoted to that of chaos, and the situation graduated into mayhem, where limbs of babies and pregnant women were chopped off, child soldiers bet each other to prove whether a pregnant woman is carrying a boy or girl in her stomach, only for them to prove the winner by brutally opening the belly of the pregnant woman using a knife in the presence of onlookers, burning of villagers in their homes, etc. The fear of some of these events, perpetrated out of callousness on the part of the combatants led to unprecedented displacement in Sierra Leone.

In April 2001 both the UN and the Sierra Leone government made a concerted effort to resettle large numbers of IDPs, as well as returning refugees. In 2002, President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah declared officially the end of the 11-year civil war, in which an estimated 50,000 people were killed and up to half of the country’s 4.5 million population displaced. Displaced Sierra Leoneans were resettled in accordance with the National Government’s Resettlement Strategy, which applies to IDPs as well as refugees and ex-combatants with their dependants. By the end of 2002, beneficiaries were offered resettlement packages, which included a two month food ration, household utensils, plastic sheeting, and in some cases transportation. According to UN OCHA, a total of some 220,000 registered IDPs were resettled in five phases since April 2001, the last 12,800 of them in November 2002. Many more returned home spontaneously. Officially at least, this left no more IDPs in Sierra Leone. However, it is acknowledged that “the challenges of closing camps remain a concern and the social problems of homelessness within the urban districts of Freetown. This will continue to be a major component of the development agenda issues to be address by government.

 

2.3       Liberia

The Fourteen years of armed conflict in Liberia resulted in successive waves of large-scale forced displacement. Civilian populations fled their homes and villages as a result of widespread killings, looting, property destruction, rape and child recruitment. About 35 IDP camps were established, mostly in rural areas close to Monrovia. By August 2003, when the Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed in Accra, there was already an estimated 500,000 to 600,000 IDPs throughout the country, a significant proportion of whom were located in Monrovia, living in congested and destitute conditions in public buildings and other available spaces, including the national football stadium.

 

October 2003, a transitional power sharing government was inaugurated. This paved way for the deployment of a 15,000-strong UN peacekeeping force. Immediately, a large-scale inter-agency effort was mobilized to support IDPs in need of assistance to relocate to the IDP camps, where food assistance and other basic services were provided by a range of UN agencies and NGOs to some 324,000 individuals registered by World Food Programme (WFP).

Between November 2004 and April 2007, some 326,990 IDPs were assisted through inter – agency approach to return to their places of origin. By March 2006, about 321,634 had returned and the camps were formally declared closed and assistance discontinued in April 2006.

However, in May 2006, research conducted by NGOs on the ground revealed that about 28,000 individuals were still residing in the former camps, of whom just over 16,000 had received return packages but had either not departed or had done so but later returned to the camps. 12,000 claimed to have been wrongly excluded from return assistance owing to errors in the WFP registration and verification process; of these, only 5,480 had their claims validated and received assistance to return. The final stage of the return process was completed in May 2007 as 122 unregistered families, identified as vulnerable, were transported to their areas of origin and received a specially designed assistance package, including shelter kits.

2.4       Cote d’ Ivoir

UNHCR report 2006, revealed an estimate of 709,380 Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Cort d’ Vivoir. Out of this, only 61,432 have returned to their place of origin (OCHA, May 2008).  The political context in Côte d’Ivoire has evolved significantly since the Ouagadougou Political Agreement (OPA) between the Ivorian Government and the Forces Nouvelles (former rebel movement) in March 2007. This has positively influenced the security and humanitarian situation: The identification process was completed on 12th May 2008. The regrouping of soldiers in government controlled areas as well as areas under “Forces Nouvelles” control, started on 2nd May 2008.  Many Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) are now returning to their areas of origin.

 

Positive changes in social, political and security context in Côte d’Ivoire have prompted most operational agencies to gradually shift from an entirely humanitarian crisis management orientation to early recovery programmes and activities; while limiting the humanitarian approach to still non stable areas in western and northern regions of Côte d’Ivoire.

UN agencies have also embraced the transition from emergency relief to early recovery and development through the UNDAF (United Nations Development Assistance Framework) process. The UNDAF process is being build up on the gains of the emergency relief phase interventions. This will ensure their sustainability. The early recovery and development programming process that takes also into account the remaining humanitarian challenges. Despite this political progress, a range of sensitive issues are still of concerns:

The identification process has been completed, but the reintegration of FN soldiers into the regular army is not being carried out as fast and smooth as anticipated.

Land disputes continue to pose serious threats to social cohesion and stability in western region (18 Montagnes and Cavally).

The redeployment of local authorities (Prefects and Sub-Prefects) in zones formerly under rebels control is still shaky, due to logistical and other constraints.

It is also worth noting that the social and economic continue to deteriorated  due to sudden increase in food prices, resulting in deepening the poverty level of the most vulnerable households and hampering their access to health services. 

All these hurdles are affecting provision of basic social services and pulling downwards the overall humanitarian situation in the country.

 

2.5       Nigeria

Nigeria, Africa’s most populous nation has a history of violence which has undermine its development for the past decades. The country has been affected by repeated internal conflicts and violence since the end of armed forces rule and the homecoming to democracy in 1999. With a complex web of linguistic, ethnic and religious groups, conflicts have been triggered by disputes over identity, access to land, and citizenship amongst people who considered themselves as indigenes and those believe to be settlers.  The settlers are prevented from owning land, access to education and jobs thus creating tension, sectarian or religious violence keep reoccurring across the country.

The major supply of wealth in Nigeria is the grouping of oil fields in the Niger Delta, and the country’s reliance on revenues from it has undermined peace and security. State revenues have not been shared efficiently, and opposing elites are in control of state institutions, forcing the exclusion of other groups and accounting in large part for the poor score of Nigeria on the 2009 Failed States Index: the country was fifteenth worst of 177 countries (The Fund for Peace, 2009). All of these have been the cause of violence that has led to thousands of displacement in Nigeria. However, there are few cases of displacement caused by natural disasters over the years. These are been considered on a low key because of its nature. There are no dependable statistics on internally displaced people (IDPs) in Nigeria and no general conformity on their actual numbers in the absence of any widespread survey. There has been no systematic registration or verification of numbers of IDPs and figures are often “grossly misleading,” according to Zanna Muhammed, deputy director of the National Emergency Management Agency.

3.0       Challenges of Internally Displaced Persons in West Africa

Host Communities
NGOs
Individual Displace Persons

3.1.0    Host Communities

Relocating to some other communities when there is threat to life and security are most times temporal. The families believe the movement is temporal and hope to be back to their usual homes as soon as possible. They sometimes seek shelter amongst friends and families, feed on the meagre resources of the host communities until such a time when International Humanitarian Agencies step in to alleviate their sufferings. Pressure on domestic resources reduces house hold incomes (host) since a huge proportion of this is spent on food, health and other necessities.  Consequently it has a multiplier effect on savings a necessary economic activity that supports investment. The lack of investment opportunities will affect productivity negatively, reduce job creation and hence reduce national income. This will ultimately affect community development because remittance from productive industries to government in the form of taxation is not realised.

Budget lines are distorted especially at the national level. Government planned expenditure for the provision of basic amenities like health care, education, security etc for the estimated population will be outrun because of the increase in population especially in the short run. To meet this challenge, government will be forced to embark on massive revenue generation drive starting at the domestic level. This involves increase in taxation which will ultimately again increase prices of basic goods and services. Host communities or country is then left with the option of grappling with inflationary situation.

Where Camps are provided for IDPs, this can have a profound effect on social norms and interaction. Lack of resources and options can promote violence (including sexual violence), exploitation and discrimination. In addition, camps can be infiltrated by armed groups and weapons can become readily available, both of which increase risks and insecurity for inhabitants. Recruitment, both forced and voluntary, is not uncommon in such camps in fighting forces.

3.1.1    NGOs

The behaviour of NGOs in terms of their operations depends on the political, economic and social conditions in the country. Therefore the donors, founders and beneficiaries will influence and dictate NGOs operations. Some of the challenges faced by NGOs in West Africa in handling IDPs situation are as follows:

 

Some NGOs usually claim autonomy in their operations base on their aims and objectives when in actual fact it is not the reality. The truth of the matter is that operations on the ground is been dictated by the shareholders who are the donors. It is a situation of who pays the piper calls the tune. This affects the NGOs and creates unnecessary competition among themselves for resources and attention from government. Therefore, procedural rights in terms of collecting data on IDPs in West Africa are hampered and the maximum benefits to be enjoyed by IDPs are normally not enhanced.

 

NGOs and Governments in most parts of Africa are strange bed fellows. Advocacy campaigns on government policies on IDPs are met with stiff resistance and West African governments renege on their commitments in fulfilling their own parts of agreements in some situations. For example, government withdrawal from fulfilling it obligation of repatriation of IDPs in Sierra Leone forced NGOs to over stretch the meagre resources available to address the issues of repatriation. 

 

Other challenges faced by NGOs in handling IDPs’ situation in West Africa include insecurity, inadequate resources and the management of these resources. They also face the challenge of sustainability in handling the repatriation of IDPs. Often and again, IDPs are seen returning back to the camps after repatriation. This poses additional problems for the work of these organisations in West Africa.

 

3.1.2       Individual Displace Persons (Survival Problem)

Statistics show that African IDPs are among the world’s most defenceless. They are at high risk of ongoing armed attack, starvation, sexual violence and exploitation, enforced military recruitment, and disease including HIV/AIDS. When the conflict is over, many IDPs find it difficult to return and resettle in situations in which infrastructure is lacking and access to basic goods and services, including health and education facilities, remains limited. The internally displaced often face intolerance, and are unable to access food, education and health care. Too often, they lack basic documentation and the ability to exercise their political rights.

 

4.0            Conclusion

In West Africa, internal displacement is caused as a result of conflict. While this is the case, conflict in this region varies depending on economic, social and political situations in the states. Sierra Leone, Liberia and Cort d’ Ivoir for example experienced displacement as a result of armed fighting for political power. In Nigeria, displacement has been caused as a result of conflict over the unequal distribution of resources, religious and ethnic factors.

It is very glaring that there is very little support for host communities. In West Africa, IDPs often received assistance from families and the local communities. In as much as we acknowledge the efforts of the local communities for relieving the state and international agencies by way of providing shelter and some other amenities, increase in the number of IDPs can pose lots of constraints on the local communities in the long run. This has the tendency of raising economic and social tensions amongst community members and IDPs. ECOWAS must emphasise protection and assistance programmes that will address the needs of the host communities.

 

Also, there is the lack of institutional capacity and adequate resources at national level to coordinate activities of stakeholders including non governmental organisations. The absence of this will lead to duplication of efforts in alleviating the sufferings of IDPs. Therefore there is a need to build the capacity of national institutions and civil society groups in order to address the issues of internal displacement.

 

Finally, insufficient inclusion of IDPs in decision making needs to be address by both community and key stakeholders. These major stakeholders must also ensure the dissemination of the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement and formulation of national laws that are derived from them.

 

5.2       REFERENCES

Action Aid International, 2008, The Middle Belt (copy available with IDMC)

Agence France-Presse (AFP), 23 October 2009, Over 15,000 militants surrender arms in Nigeria : minister

Internet : http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/RMOI-7X6N6C?OpenDocument , accessed 5 November 2009

Amnesty International (AI), 28 August 2009, Nigeria: Thousands Facing Forcible Eviction

Internet : http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AFR44/032/2009/en/27ae4e57-0a6d-4206-a0c1-365531ca2351/afr440322009en.html , accessed 6 November 2009

Brookings Institution, 16 June 2006, First Regional Conference on Internal Displacement in West Africa

Internet : http://www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/2006/brooking-wafrica-16jun.pdf , accessed 28 June 2006

Dr. Patricia Kameri – Mbote 2002, The Operational Environment and constraints for NGOs in Kenya: Strategies for good policy and practice

HPG Briefing, number 12, 2003: Humanitarian NGOs, Challenges and Trends

Forced Migration Review, 2006: Putting IDPs on the Map; Achievements and Challenges

Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), 25 February 2009, Uneasy calm in Bauchi after deadly clashes

Internet : http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=83147 , accessed 6 November 2009

Robinson, Mark and Friedman, Steven (2005): “Civil society, democratization and foreign aid

in Africa”, IDS Discussion Paper 383, Institute Of Development Studies, Brighton,

Sussex BN1 9RE, ENGLAND

www.internal-displacement.org.

Envirowise is represented throughout Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and the English regions. We work closely with regional bodies, business support organisations and other important initiatives in your area. Find out more about the environmental agency activities taking place in your area.

This message comes as the manufacturing and service sectors face even greater pressure to increase prices than at any point in the past. (1) And with continued concern over the effects of recent stock market falls, South West companies could understandably be feeling the squeeze.

Yet by taking a more environmentally efficient approach to managing their resources, local firms could relieve some of this pressure and actually save themselves money.

For more information about this and to read all the latest environmental publications

visit our website or call free-phone on: 0800 585794.

Paul Gilbert, Envirowise Regional Manager for the South West, commented: “Our region’s companies will be acutely aware of the recent business headlines that appear to signal a difficult year ahead economically.

“But by banishing wasteful practices now, companies can put themselves in a strong position – one that could potentially mean not having to pass on price rises to suppliers. In turn, this could have the added benefit of safeguarding valuable business relationships.”

Companies should consider how they can cut levels of waste associated with every stage of their business activity – for instance:

Manufacturers should look at how to reduce raw material usage, both on products and on packaging

• Pass on the sustainability message to your suppliers, and work with them to minimise waste throughout the complete supply chain

• Keep communicating with your staff to ensure they are fully bought into your actions

• Look for the quick wins – from encouraging employees to only print when absolutely necessary, reusing stationery rather than ordering in new stock, to fixing simple water leaks

Find out more information about the www.envirowise.gov.uk

Paul continued: “It is all about local firms meeting the current economic challenges head-on and, as the President of the European Commission called for this month, seeing the environment as a real business opportunity – rather than an unwelcome diversion.”

Envirowise provides a range of free advice to businesses, from hands-on guidance on optimising design to advice on implementing practical resource efficiency and waste saving measures. For further information call the Envirowise Advice Line on 0800 585 794 or visit www.envirowise.gov.uk/southwest

British Chambers of Commerce, Q4 2007 Quarterly Economic Survey

 

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations. The term was used by the Brundtland Commission which coined what has become the most often-quoted definition of sustainable development as development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social challenges facing humanity. As early as the 1970s “sustainability” was employed to describe an economy “in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems.” Ecologists have pointed to the “limits of growth” and presented the alternative of a “steady state economy” in order to address environmental concerns.

The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into three constituent parts: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and sociopolitical sustainability

Scope and definitions

The concept has included notions of weak sustainability, strong sustainability and deep ecology. Sustainable development does not focus solely on environmental issues. The United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the “interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars” of sustainable development as economic development, social development, and environmental protection.

Indigenous people have argued, through various international forums such as the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues and the Convention on Biological Diversity, that there are four pillars of sustainable development, the fourth being cultural. The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (UNESCO, 2001) further elaborates the concept by stating that “…cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature”; it becomes “one of the roots of development understood not simply in terms of economic growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual existence”. In this vision, cultural diversity is the fourth policy area of sustainable development.

Economic Sustainability: Agenda 21 clearly identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognises these interdependent pillars. It emphasises that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. It stresses the need to change from old sector-centred ways of doing business to new approaches that involve cross-sectoral co-ordination and the integration of environmental and social concerns into all development processes. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasises that broad public participation in decision making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development.

According to Hasna, sustainability is a process which tells of a development of all aspects of human life affecting sustenance. It means resolving the conflict between the various competing goals, and involves the simultaneous pursuit of economic prosperity, environmental quality and social equity famously known as three dimensions (triple bottom line) with is the resultant vector being technology, hence it is a continually evolving process; the ‘journey’ (the process of achieving sustainability) is of course vitally important, but only as a means of getting to the destination (the desired future state). However, the ‘destination’ of sustainability is not a fixed place in the normal sense that we understand destination. Instead, it is a set of wishful characteristics of a future system.

Green development is generally differentiated from sustainable development in that Green development prioritizes what its proponents consider to be environmental sustainability over economic and cultural considerations. Proponents of Sustainable Development argue that it provides a context in which to improve overall sustainability where cutting edge Green development is unattainable. For example, a cutting edge treatment plant with extremely high maintenance costs may not be sustainable in regions of the world with fewer financial resources. An environmentally ideal plant that is shut down due to bankruptcy is obviously less sustainable than one that is maintainable by the community, even if it is somewhat less effective from an environmental standpoint.

Some research activities start from this definition to argue that the environment is a combination of nature and culture. The Network of Excellence “Sustainable Development in a Diverse World”,]sponsored by the European Union, integrates multidisciplinary capacities and interprets cultural diversity as a key element of a new strategy for sustainable development.

Still other researchers view environmental and social challenges as opportunities for development action. This is particularly true in the concept of sustainable enterprise that frames these global needs as opportunities for private enterprise to provide innovative and entrepreneurial solutions. This view is now being taught at many business schools including the Center for Sustainable Global Enterprise at Cornell University and the Erb Institute for Global Sustainable Enterprise at the University of Michigan.

The United Nations Division for Sustainable Development lists the following areas as coming within the scope of sustainable development:]

Sustainable development is an eclectic concept, as a wide array of views fall under its umbrella. The concept has included notions of weak sustainability, strong sustainability and deep ecology. Different conceptions also reveal a strong tension between ecocentrism and anthropocentrism. The concept remains weakly defined and contains a large amount of debate as to its precise definition.

During the last ten years, different organizations have tried to measure and monitor the proximity to what they consider sustainability by implementing what has been called sustainability metrics and indices

Sustainable development is said to set limits on the developing world. While current first world countries polluted significantly during their development, the same countries encourage third world countries to reduce pollution, which sometimes impedes growth. Some consider that the implementation of sustainable development would mean a reversion to pre-modern lifestyles. Others have criticized the overuse of the term:

“[The] word sustainable has been used in too many situations today, and ecological sustainability is one of those terms that confuse a lot of people. You hear about sustainable development, sustainable growth, sustainable economies, sustainable societies, sustainable agriculture. Everything is sustainable (Temple, 1992).”[

Environmental sustainability

Environmental sustainability is the process of making sure current processes of interaction with the environment are pursued with the idea of keeping the environment as pristine as naturally possible based on ideal-seeking behavior.

An “unsustainable situation” occurs when natural capital (the sum total of nature’s resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished. Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature’s resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. Inherently the concept of sustainable development is intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term result of environmental degradation is the inability to sustain human life. Such degradation on a global scale could imply extinction for humanity.

Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is the ability to maintain the qualities that are valued in the physical environment.

For example, most people want to sustain (maintain):

human life the capabilities that the natural environment has to maintain the living conditions for people and other species (eg. clean water and air, a suitable climate) the aspects of the environment that produce renewable resources such as water, timber, fish, solar energy the functioning of society, despite non-renewable resource depletion the quality of life for all people, the livability and beauty of the environment

Threats to these aspects of the environment mean that there is a risk that these things will not be maintained. For example, the large-scale extraction of non-renewable resources (such as minerals, coal and oil) or damage done to the natural environment can create threats of serious decline in quality or destruction or extinction.

Traditionally, when environmental problems arise environmental managers work out how to reduce the damage or wastage. But it is not always easy to work out exactly when and where threats will have their effects and often the impacts are hard to reverse. So increasingly environmental managers adopt strategies aimed to prevent damage being done in the first place. A full sustainability program needs to include actions to prevent threats and impacts from arising, actions to protect the environment from threats and damage, and restoration to reverse damage already done.

Sustainability issues arise wherever there is a risk of difficult or irreversible loss of the things or qualities of the environment that people value. And whenever there are such risks there is a degree of urgency to take action.

Environmental sustainability programs include actions to reduce the use of physical resources, the adoption of a ‘recycle everything/buy recycled’ approach, the use of renewable rather than depletable resources, the redesign of production processes and products to eliminate the production of toxic materials, and the protection and restoration of natural habitats and environments valued for their livability or beauty.

Conclusion

To explore the idea of environmental sustainability in more detail, the Commissioner asked Philip Sutton, Director – Strategy for Green Innovations to prepare a paper on a definition for environmental sustainability, how it fits with other common terms related to sustainability and what it means for us to be environmentally sustainable. You can download the paper below.

INTRODUCTION:

Good Entrepreneur can create a strong economy. Entrepreneurship is an important facet of industrial growth and development of a nation. It is the backbone of a nation that sets its eyes on maximizing its performance in every field. The spirit of entrepreneurship brings about enthusiasm, persistence and the ability to seek entrepreneurial opportunities that lead to success. A nation’s ability to generate a steady stream of business opportunities can only come about when its people take to entrepreneurial activities. Entrepreneurs are essentially the engines of growth for a nation. There are several factors that go into making a successful entrepreneur, and he or she need not necessarily possess a strong business and financial background. On the contrary, well-conceived and well directed training can always produce an outstanding entrepreneur. In addition, today’s world with its burgeoning population offers limited avenues of employment.

WHO IS AN ENTREPRENEUR?

The entrepreneur as a person brings in overall change through innovation for the maximum social good. Human values remain sacred and inspire him to serve the society. He has firm belief in social betterment and he carries out this responsibility with conviction. In this process, he accelerates personal, economic as well as human development. The entrepreneur is a visionary and an integrated man with outstanding leadership qualities. With a desire to excel, he gives top priority to Research and Development. He always works for the well-being of the society. More importantly, entrepreneurial activities encompass all fields / sectors and foster a spirit of enterprise for the welfare of mankind.

OBJECTIVES OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP

To create entrepreneurial awareness to the young generation and motivate them to establish small and medium enterprises To trained up the prospective new and young entrepreneurs to maintain and run their enterprises successfully. To enabling the entrepreneurs about the global production and market strategy in context of market economy To encourage the entrepreneurs to establish pollution free enterprises

IMPORTANCE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Entrepreneurship promotes capital formation by mobilizing the idle saving of the public. It provides immediate large-scale employment. Thus it helps to reduce the unemployment problem in the country, i.e., the root of all socio-economic problems. Entrepreneurship promotes balanced regional development. Entrepreneurship helps reduce the concentration of economic power. It stimulates the equitable redistribution of wealth, income and even political power in the interest of the country. It encourages effective resource mobilization of capital and skill which might otherwise remain unutilized and idle. It also induces backward and forward linkages which stimulates the process of economic development in the country. Entrepreneurship also promotes the country’s export trade, which is an important ingredient to economic development.

ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN INDIA

“Entrepreneur is one who always searches for change, responds to it, and exploits it as an opportunity”. Entrepreneurs innovate and innovation is a specific instrument of entrepreneurship. It creates resource because there is no such thing as a ‘resource’ until man finds a use for something and endows it wit economic value. India is second among all nations in Total Entrepreneurship Activity as per the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Report 2002. Over the years India has concentrated more on the development of the institutions that support private enterprise by building a stronger infrastructure to support it. The Government has encouraged entrepreneurship by providing training and also the facilities to succeed, particularly in the rural areas. Moreover, in India, the post-liberalization and globalization era has brought with it a growing middle class – roughly estimated to be 250 million – and rising disposable incomes. This presents a huge potential, which if tapped can be a veritable gold mine. Entrepreneurs can make the best of this by catering to various demands of this segment.

QUALITIES OF AN ENTREPRENEUR:

The important qualities of a successful entrepreneur are as follows,

Total commitment, determination and perseverance Drive to achieve and grow Opportunity and goal orientation Taking initiative and personal responsibility Persistent problem-solving Realism and a sense of humour Seeking and using feedback Internal focus of control Calculated risk taking and risk seeking Low need for status and power Integrity and reliability

CHALLENGES TO THE ENTREPRENEUR IN INDIA

Entrepreneurship plays a vital role in economic development through creation of utilities and generation of employment within a short period. It has been accepted that entrepreneurship is an economic venture by which the people can be changed to move upwards within a short period of time, especially from the point of view of employment generation. Out of the economically active population of 550 million at present only 27.53 million people have had the benefit of employment in the organized sector. 249.76 million are either employed or under employed in the unorganized sector, while the services of the remaining 272.71 million remain unutilized by the entrepreneur. As a result over 29 % of the population continues to suffer under the clutches of poverty and hunger.

The founding of new firms has always been a focal research issue in the entrepreneurship research tradition. In order to support the founding of new firms, it is important to know who starts new firms, in what kinds of situations, and for what kinds of reasons. The early research on entrepreneurship strove to identify the psychological characteristics, or traits, of those people who start new firms. One problem of this ‘trait’ line of research was that it focused on ex post situations, interviewing entrepreneurs who already had started a firm.

ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITIES

a) Participation in International Fairs/Exhibitions

With a view to ensure that exporters from small scale sector exhibit their products in the International Exhibitions, required assistance & support is provided. Expenditure on account of space rent, handling and clearing charges, insurance and shipment charges etc. are met by the office of the Development Commissioner (Small Scale Industries) under one of the plan schemes. Participation in the named fairs/exhibitions generates large number of Trade enquiries besides certain export orders. It also provides an opportunity to entrepreneurs to display their products in the world market. The basic objective behind this scheme is that entrepreneurs which otherwise are not in a position to display their products may participate in foreign exhibition/fairs so as to promote their exports. Enquiries generated during such exhibitions abroad are disseminated to all entrepreneurs through a net work of field offices of this organization. This strategy has been found to be successful for exporters from small scale sector in identifying new foreign buyers/markets.

b) Packaging for Exports

Packaging standards, techniques etc. training programmes on packaging for exports are organized in various parts of the country. Role of packaging for exports has gained much significance in view of trends in the world markets. The need for better and scientific packaging for exports from small sector was recognized long back. These programmes are organized in association with Indian Institute of Packaging which has requisite expertise on the subject. Basic objective of these programmes is to generate the much needed consciousness in the industry and to educate the entrepreneurs about the scientific techniques of Packaging.

c) Technical & Managerial Consultancy Services

Technical & Managerial Consultancy Services to the entrepreneurs is provided through a net work of field offices of SIDO so as to ensure higher level of production and generation of higher exports.

d) National Awards for Quality Products

With a view to encourage the small scale units for producing Quality goods, National Awards for Quality Products are given to the outstanding small scale units, who have made significant contribution for improving quality of their products. National Awards encourage entrepreneurs to produce quality goods which further enable them to enter into export market.

e) Marketing Development Assistance

Marketing Development Scheme is being operated by Ministry of Commerce under which MDA is given to exporters through FIEO and Export Promotion Councils/ Commodity Boards to plan their marketing strategy for export growth.

f) Promotional Schemes

To meet the challenges of international competition and to promote exports of entrepreneurs, following promotional schemes are also being implemented.

1. Technology Development and Modernization Fund Scheme

2. Quality Awareness Scheme

3. Subsidy for obtaining ISO-9000 quality Certification

4. Process-cum-Product Development Centre

g) Small Industry Cluster Development Program:

A new scheme for technology upgradation for industrial clusters has been started recently. 10 clusters of industries producing different groups in various parts of country have been selected. The scheme aims at diagnostic study of the clusters, identification of technological needs, technological intervention and wider dissemination of information and technology within the clusters. The expenditure involved on pilot plants etc. is to be met on 50:50 cost sharing basis by the Government and the concerned Industry Association of the clusters. The scheme is flexible and provides for smooth sourcing of technology even from abroad.

ENTREPRENEURIAL THRUST OF WOMEN

In India, a majority of women entrepreneurs fall within the age group of 25- 40 years. Most women owners are married. They have a good educational background, with most of them at least graduates, and have an above average record in education and participation in extra-curricular activities. Most have an urban background and have lived in small nuclear families, both before and after marriage. A majority of women entrepreneurs are from Hindu forward communities, with Brahmins being the largest proportion. In the northern part of the country, it is mainly women belonging to communities which have traditionally been in business e.g., Bania or Punjabi Khatri. Among the states, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka have more women entrepreneurs. These women are either from families which are already in business or have service backgrounds, or they have highly educated fathers or husbands.

CONCLUSION

The entrepreneurship miracle in other country is an engine for job creation, innovation and diversity. In the case of diversity it is observed that women – owned and minority owned business may be emerging growth companies of the next decade. The role of entrepreneurship in global business of developing countries like India is also significant. The wide range of significant contributions that entrepreneurship makes include promotion of capital formation, creation of immediate large-scale employment, promotion of balanced regional development, and effective mobilization of capital and skills.

“For the second consecutive year Sierra Leone has come last in the UN Development Program ranking of human development indicators of 179 countries, which according to Engilbert Gudmundsson, World Bank Sierra Leone country director, “should be a call to action for everyone who is interested in the well-being of ordinary people in Sierra Leone”.  Sierra Leone’s maternal mortality indicators – the highest in the world – continue to drag the country down, according to UNDP-Sierra Leone deputy country director Samuel Harbor. Of every 100,000 live births, 1,800 women die according to the UNDP figures, while one in four children die before they reach age five.

While Sierra Leone emerged from conflict almost a decade ago, progress in rehabilitating the economy and building up basic health and education services has been slow, says West Africa regional World Bank country director, Ishac Diwan. Just half of Sierra Leone’s primary schools are functioning, many of them in inadequate conditions, and secondary school attendance is still only at 44 percent, according to the UN.  But the government is cash-strapped. “Sierra Leone is very poor, so simply put, the ability of the government to put in place development measures is very limited,” said Richard Moncrieff, West Africa regional director of think-tank the International Crisis Group (Thomson Reuters Foundation, 2008).  

For ordinary Sierra Leoneans, the true anguish of the slow development pace is taking its toll on them. If government intervention remains sloppy and erratic, the consequences will be grim both ethically and politically.

Politicians and policymakers do in fact have it in their power to change the trend of the human development index for Sierra Leone if only they are genuinely interested in fighting corruption vis-à-vis development, peace and human security. But so far, President Ernest Koroma’s All People’s Congress (A.P.C.) administration does not seem to have all the answers to the numerous problems facing the poor and exploited masses nor does his political program seem to differ with that of the Sierra Leone People’s Party (S.L.P.P.) it replaced. The people of Sierra Leone remain isolated from their own resources deprived of even the basic social services (energy, tap water and housing) required for growth and development. This has had the immaculately dysfunctional consequence of further worsening the living conditions in the country with still a low life expectancy, high infant mortality rates, a declining economy and a vastly hungry population which were the hallmarks of Tejan Kabbah’s policies and eleven years in office. Instead, the new political elite have, unsurprisingly, turned their rise to power into an opportunity.  

[Absurdly,] law makers in Sierra Leone are not only asking for four thousand dollars (US$ 4,000 or Le 12 million) per month but are also requesting a soft loan of USD$ 45,000 as car loan. They are asking for a 30 percent (%) payment of the cost over a three year period. These MPs want 70 percent (%) of the car loans absorbed by the budget, paid for by the tax payers. We are even told the initial recommendation was in a threshold of six thousand dollars (US$ 6,000) monthly, advocated for by the president, referring to it as reasonable payment. Granted the MPs current take home pay of US$ 768 (Le 2,288,745) per month is one of the smallest in the sub-region, but conservatively the said amount is the envy of many civil servants, who sadly do not even make US$ 20 per month.

Where were the MPs when they got bulldozed in the passage of some US$ 300,000 for a mere presidential inauguration or other travel expenses to the Gambia and other places, or the setting up of a commission of inquiry when there is an already established Anti-corruption Commission unit? Had the MPs being truthful in taken up tough issues, there is no way the so-called WANZA pay out running into billions can even be accommodated, or the Income electric electrification deal currently costing the nation unprecedented bill to service. The MPs can justify their request by holding an investigation into the process to make some savings in this bizarre operations condemned by the ACC but fell short to offer punitive measures (Concord Times, 2008).

Interestingly, Abdul Serry-Kamal, the country’s Attorney General and Minister of Justice, took it as a chance to engage in acts which did not properly serve the interest of the people of Sierra Leone when wrapped up in that deal that gave the Lebanese merchant Mohamed Wanza ,000,000.00 for spurious claims against the people of Sierra Leone. The local tabloid has portrayed the Wanza deal as demonstrating the failure of responsible governance (with “people with ancillary interests (rumored to include the Attorney General himself in receiving various unspecified shares of the settlement) would have received their cuts” to make the deal work for Wanza) (The New People Newspaper, 2008).

The real challenge is not the technical difficulty of nation building but the political difficulty of confronting the lobbying interests and illusions on which current policies rest. Ending corruption in Sierra Leone will involve three politically challenging steps. First, contrary to the romantics, the country needs severe punishment for corruption crimes, not less. The Singaporean model of crime and punishment, for instance, has some good lessons Sierra Leoneans can learn from.  

“Singapore’s legal system might seem unusually severe. Although Singapore does not hand out the death penalty randomly, Amnesty International states that Singapore has one of the world’s highest rates of execution relative to its population for drug trafficking and crimes of corruption. Even minor civic violations such as spitting, littering, or dropping cigarette butts on the street are dealt with heavy fines. [Singapore’s severe legal system thus seems to be working because Singapore is considered] one of the cleanest, greenest cities in the world, and a popular tourist destination, receiving over eight million visitors a year. At just 700 square kilometers, Singapore has an annual GDP that competes with leading nations of Europe. This gives it the world’s fourth most competitive economy, placing it ahead of the United States. The city-state also boasts a high standard of living, low unemployment, and a literacy rate of 98 percent. Singapore has 12 times the population of Vancouver but just half the crime rate” (Pacific Rim Magazine, 2008).

Multi-Sectoral Strategy against Corruption

Typically, in contemplating on a solution to a problem, people look to its causes—or, yet more absurdly, to its “root” cause. But there need be no rational correlation between the cause of a problem and fitting or even just realistic solutions to it. Such is the case with the development crisis in Sierra Leone. The root cause of the development problems Sierra Leone faces is the illusion and greed that sustains its systemic corruption. Corruption in government accounts for the failure of successive leaderships in addressing the country’s sluggish economic development and improving its human development index score.

Despite its potential, Sierra Leone remains among the poorest nations in the world with dependency on a ward of foreign donors because it does not have the economic resources to develop its economy. The country will still need a large base of sustained foreign support to significantly lift the standard of living of its people. Most of the foreign investment however will be in the mining sector, even though the sector creates relatively few jobs, though generates significant profits. The country’s basic infrastructure meanwhile remains inadequate, particularly faced with issues of insufficient electric supply, a marked lack of health infrastructure and the inadequate delivery of basic services. There is also a dearth of skilled manpower available to meet the demands of a constructive national development strategy and the country’s unreasonable transport structure also needs upgraded. Clearly, Sierra Leone still has a lot of ground to make up from many years of political instability and the horrors and devastation caused by the Civil War of the 1990s.

The IMF Country Staff Report No. 08/249, a Second Review under the Three-Year Arrangement under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility has shown performance to be mixed under the Fund-Supported Program with an output growth of 6.8 percent and broad-based, but missed key fiscal revenue and spending objectives clouded by slow progress on the structural reform front. Also, the output growth has been matched with significant revenue shortfalls in the second half of 2006 (0.7 percent of GDP) and 2007 (2.4 percent of GDP) derailed the PRGF arrangement. These shortfalls have only become more common with the leadership volatility that accompanies governing Sierra Leone. Accordingly, against a backdrop of relentlessly corrupt players in government, stable development has fluctuated more sharply as well.

The unambiguous losers when it comes to the relentless corruption in government are the poor people of Sierra Leone. The majority of the population of Sierra Leone barely makes ends meet day by day. Being poor, they are inevitably squeezed by bad management of the natural resources of the country, and by cruel implications of the illusions and greed that define the Sierra Leone society, the poor people of Sierra Leone does not seem to have any chance. The hungry youth that constitute a huge percentage of the marginalized poor are the unlikely victims who have not accepted their fate quietly. For decades, hunger among the youth has provoked the same response: riots – the classic political base for populist politics.

Also, at the end of the corruption chain, comes the real crunch: as poverty deepens among the rural-urban poor, those most likely to go hungry are children. Growth stunting is common among malnourished young children who remain in these poor rural-urban environments. Stunted growth is not merely a physical condition; it affects the complete physical, mental and social well-being of these young children. It is an irreversible condition that lasts a lifetime, and indeed, some studies find that it is passed down through generations. And so although the persistence of poverty in Sierra Leone is today’s news, if it is not decisively dealt with all seriousness at this time, its consequences will seal the fate of Sierra Leone which is already at the precipice of self-annihilation because of the political stakeholders’ inability to change their behaviors.

In short, national corruption must be dealt with, and it must be dealt with seriously, because the adverse consequences of corruption are so persistent and are the conditions responsible for the poor human development index rating for Sierra Leone. The question is how. The flaw is not in the people. The solution must come from the political leadership. That kind of leadership that could address the endemic corruption in the society has been talked about for decades, but it now must be taken more seriously.

Fortunately, policymakers have the power to do all of this: by changing anti-corruption regulation they can make laws more draconian and effective; by encouraging organizational changes within the Anti Corruption Commission (A.C.C.), they can make the A.C.C. more relevant and a force for good; and by encouraging innovations in technology and its integration in all government departments, they can regulate better the workings of government. When corruption is effectively contained the key parameters in advancing development, which are to (i) mobilize more domestic revenue; (ii) reorient public spending to infrastructure projects and poverty-reducing programs; (iii) prevent rapid accumulation of public debt; and (iv) accelerate implementation of structural reforms, can be better coordinated. Such structural reform agenda has to be revitalized to sustain growth in order to progress toward the Millennium Development Goals (M.D.G.s).

Program Objectives and Policies of the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF)

The key medium-term objectives of the PRGF-supported program which have been revised by the current administration in Sierra Leone projected a real GDP growth to be slightly lower but still strong at 6 percent, and double-digit inflation is expected to linger beyond 2010, assuming lagged spillovers from higher food and energy prices. With the policy objectives for 2008 to consolidate macroeconomic stabilization and prepare for sustained high growth over the medium term, the macroeconomic framework for 2008 at a real GDP growth of 6 percent has acquired a strange allure. Macroeconomics based on further expansion of agricultural, manufacturing, construction and service activities is prized as constructive in both its literal and its metaphoric sense. (The Breton Woods institutions are its leading apostles). In its literal sense, macroeconomic development is now a premium strategy, a development brand through which improvements in education and infrastructure and lower inflation levels would lead to both growth and progressive distributional change. In its metaphoric sense, it represents the antithesis of large government, hierarchical, pressured institutions in which government is made to work leading to faster growth. The Breton Woods institutions have suggested a model framework necessary to preserve institutions in Sierra Leone as efficiently functioning intuitions.

But distressingly, Sierra Leone institutions show little inclination to preserve themselves as functioning institutions. Given the chance, politicians come to these institutions and all they do is to embezzle and misappropriate government resources rendering institutions unproductive. This is because Sierra Leoneans believe the sure way of becoming fiscally adequate is by having access to government resources. The political life forces many educated Sierra Leoneans into the role of political activism, a role for which most take on with the ulterior motive of enriching themselves at the expense of national development programs. In successful market economies, political activism is a minority pursuit; most people opt for entrepreneurship so that others can have the worry and grind of running a government.

In modern political practice, selfless patriotism is helpful. In modern governance, corruption is an abomination, technology is essentially relevant to effective governance, and rigid regulatory standards are the holy grail of anti corruption measures. Far from being the answer to national lack of development, the political rhetoric about anti corruption measures does not have the force of law in a country that has not made any real effort to develop itself after independence.

Successful societies are better suited to cope with less draconian anti corruption laws and regulation. Yet since it got her independence from Britain, Sierra Leone has not been serious about making development work, basing political strategies instead on rhetoric and lies. This neglect is all the more striking given the persistence of corruption and poverty driven by the illusion and greed of the political elite.

The critical challenges for Sierra Leone remain to enhance recovery; sustain democratic governance, peace, justice and security; protect the human rights of vulnerable groups; create employment, particularly for youth; increase capacities for managing development and tackling income poverty; broaden political participation, especially amongst marginalized groups such as women and youth; accelerate the pace of social advancement; and reduce the heavy dependence on Official Development Assistance (O.D.A.). These key priorities are articulated in the conclusions of the Consultative Group Meeting in December 2006, the Peace Consolidation Strategy agreed with the Peacebuilding Commission and other economic development planning documents.

Making Governance Work

The five reforms – judicial reform, civil society and media, reform in the health services system, reform in tax, customs, and police administration, reform in the center for combating economic crime and corruption – fit together economically and politically. Measures have to be constructive measures to support reforms to reduce corruption and improve transparency and accountability. Good governance fundamentally underpins effective poverty reduction and sustained economic growth through government that is competent, transparent, non-corrupt, and responsive to the needs of its people. Reliable players in legislating laws and ensuring an equal playing field are essential in promoting lasting development, as is a reliable judicial system that adjudicates fairly. Only a practice of genuine democracy in Sierra Leone can harness the talents of all its citizens and allow them opportunities to realize that potential in the open marketplace of goods and ideas—a brand of development strategy echoed in the 2002 Monterrey Consensus, which states that: “Good governance is essential for sustainable development. Sound economic policies, solid democratic institutions responsive to the needs of the people and improved infrastructure are the basis for sustained economic growth, poverty eradication and employment creation” (U.S. Department of State, 2007).

It is time for Sierra Leone’s political elite to make conscious, determined efforts to pursue democracy and to rule justly, sometimes in challenging contexts. Politicians should now be seen to take substantive steps that increase transparency and good governance, both to expand freedom and democracy and because those policies have the greatest chance of reducing poverty and benefiting the lives of ordinary citizens. Such policies have the potential to attract growth-oriented foreign development assistance and investment (such as meeting the qualifying criteria for the Threshold Program of millions of dollars of assistance from the Millennium Challenge Account (M.C.A.) managed by the Millennium Challenged Corporation (M.C.C.), a US-based corporation) that can have powerful multiplier effects, both economically and in terms of democratic governance.

The defining principle of a Koroma administration National Development Strategy is reform that needs to be supported by messages of equal potency. The Koroma administration cannot expect to eliminate national development risks by being lenient with corruption in government. Government in Sierra Leone should understand how to set priorities and consider inescapable tradeoffs and opportunity costs. A responsible strategy should strive for reform to control corruption and providing material and technical assistance in five distinct component areas:

Component One: Judicial reform, with commitment to:
o    Reduce opportunities for corruption in the judiciary through increased transparency and accountability.
o    Automate the organizational management and functioning of the courts.
o    Improve Court procedures.
o    Clarify the roles of court personnel.
o    Providing training, court infrastructure improvements, and better management and IT systems.
o    Refocus priorities which recognize the priority to provide “primary justice” – in other words justice at the community level with a formal legal system.
o    Making sure that alternative systems for delivering justice (including through chiefdoms) are functioning properly and fairly.
o    Dealing with the backlogs and delays that continue to beset the formal justice system – civil, criminal and juvenile.
o    Putting in place new institutional arrangements to enhance cooperation, coordination and communication between the many actors involved in the justice sector. 

Component Two: Civil society and mass-media reform, with commitment to:
o    Support NGO monitoring of all components and initiatives.
o    Build the capacity of Sierra Leonean NGOs and mass media.
o    Implement reforms and new Government policies that can enable civil society and mass media organizations to effectively play their roles as monitors of government policy and performance.
o    Educate the public.
o    Build effective models of NGO/government partnership.

Component Three: Reform in the health services system, with commitment to:
o    Complement its ongoing efforts to make quality health care more accessible and transparent to all patients.
o    Reduce opportunities for corruption in the health care delivery system by limiting the discretionary powers of health care providers, budget managers, and procurement agents.
o    Establishment of norms and standards and by increasing accountability through increased oversight.

Component Four: Reform in tax, customs, and police administration, with commitment to:
o    Improve capacities and transparency in tax collection and customs administration
o    Improve institutional and human resource capacities in police administration
o    Improve Ethics Code implementation systems.

Component Five: Reform in the Anti Corruption Commission (A.C.C.), with commitment to:
o    Provide technical assistance to help the A.C.C. implement institutional reforms to decentralize the agency
o    Improve institutional and human resource capacities in police administration.
o    Help create an independent Civilian Board to monitor the activity of the A.C.C. and to advise the A.C.C. Commissioner.
o    Improve institutional and human resource capacities.
o    Enhance whistleblower protection mechanisms.
o    Improve delivery of social services in terms of quality, quantity and process.

Setting a Few Examples

Sierra Leonean political heavy weights will definitely need to do some genuine rethinking. The people most attracted to containing corruption through assertive leadership are potentially the constituency that could save Sierra Leone from its ruinous governance policies. The players in power in Sierra Leone indeed need to be serious about eliminating their dependence on corruption and recognizing a comprehensive approach to the process of reform with a national development strategy becoming an integral part of the overall process rather than a stand alone instrument for combating corruption. Sierra Leonean politicians are quite simply too profligate when it comes to their use of government resources as they do sustain a high-income lifestyle. The Sierra Leone Anti Corruption system needs to be shifted from burdening work to discouraging crimes of corruption with all entities constituting the pillars of integrity demonstrating zero-tolerance to corruption in all its forms and the supremacy of the law prevailing.

The mark of a good politician is the ability to guide citizens away from corrupt practices. Unless countered, corruption will continue to block the policies needed to address the human development index crisis in Sierra Leone. Properly informed, many citizens will rethink their priorities, but politicians will need to deliver these messages and forge new alliances. If corruption and poverty conditions are not dealt with decisively, the youth and rural-urban children will remain hungry and disoriented, and there is no hope for Sierra Leone. Setting a few examples by experimenting with the Singaporean legal system of justice against crimes of corruption is a small price to pay.